The Islamic republic has developed extensive tools to engage in conflict short of war, in what has come to be known as the “gray zone.” Examples include the 1983 Beirut Marine barracks bombing, the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing, and the 2011 plot to assassinate the Saudi ambassador to the United States. The U.S. government has struggled to adapt to the unique requirements of gray zone deterrence, especially as it reduces its military presence in the Middle East. What steps need to be taken not only more effectively to deter Iran but also for more menacing actors like China and Russia?
