Shows
CHEMDUNNTopic: Faraday's LawFaraday's Law relates the amount of chemical change in an electrolytic cell to the total electric charge passed through it. The amount of product is directly proportional to the charge. Using Faraday's constant (96,485 C/mol/e-), the charge converts to moles of electrons, which then relates to moles of product via the half-reaction stoichiometry. This allows calculation of the mass of substance produced.
2025-11-1306 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Conjugate Acids & BasesThis episode discusses Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs as a necessary outcome of the Brønsted-Lowry definition. When an acid donates a proton (H+), it forms its conjugate base; when a base accepts a proton, it forms its conjugate acid. These pairs always differ by exactly one proton. Crucially, the strength of an acid is inversely related to the strength of its conjugate base. In any acid-base reaction, equilibrium favors the side containing the weaker acid and weaker base.
2025-11-1006 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Definitions of Acids & BasesAcids and bases are fundamental chemical concepts defined by how they behave in solution. The Arrhenius definition states that acids produce H+ ions and bases produce OH- ions in water. A broader view is the Brønsted-Lowry definition, where an acid is a proton (H+) donor and a base is a proton acceptor. The most inclusive is the Lewis definition, identifying acids as electron-pair acceptors and bases as electron-pair donors. These definitions are crucial for understanding reactions, pH calculations, and buffer systems.
2025-11-0904 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Calculating Equilibrium Constant (K)This episode focuses on the Equilibrium Constant (K), which mathematically quantifies the position of a chemical equilibrium. K is defined by the expression: Products over Reactants, where the molar concentration of each substance, represented by brackets [ ], is raised to the power of its stoichiometric coefficient. A crucial rule is to exclude pure solids (s) and pure liquids (l) from the K expression, only including gases (g) and aqueous solutions (aq) because the concentrations of solids and pure liquids are constant. The value of K indicates which side of the reaction is favored: a large K (K>1) means the equilibrium...
2025-10-1106 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Chemical EquilibriumThis episode introduces chemical equilibrium, defining it as the point where the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. This process is dynamic, meaning the reaction hasn't stopped, but the concentrations of all substances have become constant, though not necessarily equal. Equilibrium is indicated by a double arrow. The system's preference for either reactants or products is described as the equilibrium "lying to the left" or "lying to the right," respectively. The episode emphasizes the key misconception that equal rates imply equal concentrations, rather only the rates are equal, while the concentrations are constant.
2025-10-1005 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Rate ComparisonsThis episode explains rate comparisons in chemical kinetics, focusing on how the rate of change for each substance in a chemical reaction is related through the stoichiometry of the balanced equation. It introduce a general rate expression where the rate of change in concentration for each reactant and product is divided by its respective coefficient to determine the overall reaction rate. Using the synthesis of ammonia as a practical example, the episode demonstrates how to calculate the overall rate and the consumption rate of one substance given the formation rate of another. It concludes by highlighting common mistakes, such...
2025-10-1006 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Integrated Rate LawThis episode demystifies the Integrated Rate Laws, the essential chemical kinetics equations that allow chemists to predict the exact concentration of a reactant at any given time. While standard rate laws show instantaneous speed, the integrated versions, derived using calculus, link concentration and time directly. The episodes explore the three main laws for zero-order, first-order, and second-order reactions, highlighting that each has a unique linear form. This linearity is the key analytical tool: by plotting concentration data (either [A], ln[A], or 1/[A]) versus time, the plot that yields a straight line immediately reveals the reaction's order. The slope of...
2025-09-2814 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Bond EnthalpiesThis episode explains how to calculate the enthalpy of a reaction (ΔHrxn) using average bond enthalpies. This method is based on the principle that breaking old bonds requires energy and forming new bonds releases energy. The core formula is ΔHrxn=Σ(bonds broken)−Σ(bonds formed), where "bonds broken" refers to the energy of the reactant bonds and "bonds formed" is the energy of the product bonds.
2025-09-2807 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Enthalpies of FormationThis episode explains how to calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction using standard enthalpies of formation, which are values representing the energy required to form one mole of a compound from its elements. The episode introduces the "products minus reactants" formula. It emphasizes a key fact: the enthalpy change of formation for any pure element in its most stable form is zero. This method offers a mathematical way to determine reaction enthalpy without needing to manipulate multiple equations, like Hess’s Law.
2025-09-2305 minCHEMDUNNTopic: CalorimetryThis episode explains calorimetry, the science of measuring heat transfer, based on the Law of Conservation of Energy. It demonstrates how to use the formula q=m⋅c⋅ΔT to solve for unknown variables in two common scenarios. First, the specific heat of an unknown metal is determined by measuring the heat it loses to water in a calorimeter. Second, the enthalpy change of a neutralization reaction is calculated by finding the heat absorbed by the solution and converting it to a per-mole basis. The episode highlights the importance of the negative sign in the core principle and warns again...
2025-09-2309 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Hess's LawThis episode explains Hess's Law, a method for calculating the enthalpy change of a reaction by treating it as a sum of other known reactions. It presents three key rules for manipulating these equations: reversing an equation changes the sign of its ΔH, multiplying an equation by a coefficient requires multiplying its ΔH by the same number, and adding equations together means adding their ΔH values. By applying these rules to a sample problem, it demonstrates how to combine a series of reactions to find the ΔH for a target reaction, emphasizing that this method is based on enthalpy bein...
2025-09-2306 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Specific Heat CapacityThis episode provides a clear, concise summary of specific heat capacity and its use in thermochemistry. It introduces the fundamental concept that specific heat capacity, represented by the symbol c, is a measure of how much thermal energy a substance can store. The episode focuses on the key equation q=m⋅c⋅ΔT as the central formula for calculating heat transfer.
2025-09-2003 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Heating & Cooling CurvesA heating or cooling curve graphically represents the relationship between heat, temperature, and the physical state of a substance. The curve has sloped sections where the temperature changes as heat is added, and the substance remains in a single phase (solid, liquid, or gas). The formula q=mcΔT is used to calculate the heat involved in these sections. The curve also has flat plateaus where the temperature remains constant because the added heat is used entirely for a phase change, such as melting or boiling. The formula q=nΔH is used for these sections. The vaporization plateau is...
2025-09-2007 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Thermochemical EquationsEnthalpy (ΔH) is the heat change in a chemical reaction and can be shown in two ways: either written with the equation or included as a reactant or product. A negative ΔH signifies an exothermic reaction that releases heat, which can be shown as a product in the equation. A positive ΔH signifies an endothermic reaction that absorbs heat, which can be shown as a reactant. In stoichiometry problems, the ΔH value acts as a conversion factor relating moles of a substance to the amount of heat released or absorbed, allowing you to calculate the heat for a given amou...
2025-09-2006 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Energy DiagramsEnergy diagrams are a visual tool to understand the energy changes in chemical reactions. They map the reaction from reactants to products, with the vertical axis showing potential energy. The difference in energy between the start and end points is the enthalpy change (ΔH). A peak in the diagram represents the transition state, and the energy needed to reach it from the reactants is the activation energy (Ea). For an exothermic reaction, products are at a lower energy level than reactants, resulting in a negative ΔH (heat exits). In an endothermic reaction, products are at a higher energy level, resu...
2025-09-2004 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Heat FlowHeat transfers in three primary ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is direct heat transfer through physical contact, common in solids like a metal spoon in hot soup. Convection is heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases), where warmer, less dense fluid rises and cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a continuous flow, as seen when boiling water. Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy via electromagnetic waves, which doesn't require a medium, like the sun's heat reaching Earth. All three methods can be observed simultaneously in a fireplace, where the grate heats by conduction, the rising...
2025-09-2004 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Colligative PropertiesColligative properties are solution properties that depend on the number of solute particles, not their identity. The episode focuses on freezing point depression and boiling point elevation. In these calculations, m is molality (moles of solute per kilogram of solvent), Kf and Kb are solvent-specific constants found on a reference table, and i is the van 't Hoff factor, which accounts for how many particles a solute breaks into. For example, a non-electrolyte like glucose has i=1, while a substance like NaCl has i=2. The episode emphasizes avoiding common errors like confusing molality with molarity and forgetting the van 't H...
2025-09-2008 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Complete and Net Ionic EquationsIonic equations provide a more accurate view of reactions in solution than a simple chemical equation. A complete ionic equation shows all dissolved ionic compounds as separate ions, while solids, liquids, and gases remain intact. From this, a net ionic equation is derived by removing spectator ions—those that remain unchanged on both sides of the reaction. The final net ionic equation shows only the species that directly participate in the reaction. These equations are crucial for understanding the true nature of a reaction, as they reveal the fundamental chemical process and simplify reactions like acid-base neutralization.
2025-09-2008 minCHEMDUNNTopic: DilutionDilution is the process of lowering a solution's concentration by adding more solvent while keeping the amount of solute constant. This process is governed by the equation M1V1=M2V2, where M is molarity and V is volume, with subscripts 1 and 2 referring to the initial stock solution and the final diluted solution, respectively. This formula is used to calculate the volume of a concentrated stock solution needed to achieve a desired final concentration and volume. A crucial safety rule, especially when working with strong acids, is to always add acid to water to safely dissipate the heat generated. For high...
2025-09-2007 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Real vs. Ideal GasesReal gases deviate from ideal behavior under high pressure and low temperature because the assumptions of the ideal gas law break down. At high pressure, the volume of gas molecules themselves becomes significant, making the gas less compressible than predicted. At low temperature, weak attractive forces between molecules become noticeable, causing the gas to be more compressible and exert lower pressure. While the ideal gas law is an excellent model for normal conditions, understanding these deviations is crucial for accurate predictions in extreme situations and for explaining phenomena like gas liquefaction.
2025-09-2009 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Maxwell-Boltzmann DistributionThe Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution shows that molecules in a gas don't all move at the same speed, but rather follow a predictable statistical pattern. The curve representing this distribution shows a peak for the most probable speed and a long tail indicating that some molecules move very fast. The distribution is significantly affected by temperature, which shifts the entire curve toward higher speeds, and molecular mass, where lighter gases have a curve shifted toward higher speeds. This model is crucial because it explains gas properties based on the statistical, not uniform, motion of molecules.
2025-09-1907 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Graham's LawGraham's Law states that a gas's rate of diffusion or effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. In simple terms, lighter gases move faster than heavier ones. This relationship comes from the fact that all gases at the same temperature have the same average kinetic energy, meaning a lighter molecule must move faster to have the same energy as a heavier one. The law's formula allows us to predict the relative speeds of gases. This principle applies to both diffusion (a gas spreading out) and effusion (a gas escaping through a small opening).
2025-09-1906 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Dalton's Law of Partial PressureThis episode explains Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures, which states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of each gas's individual pressure. This works because, at the molecular level, each gas acts independently. The episode gives examples, including collecting a gas over water, where the total pressure must be corrected for water vapor pressure. It also introduces the concept of mole fraction, where a gas's partial pressure can be calculated by multiplying its mole fraction by the total pressure.
2025-09-1907 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Kinetic Molecular TheoryThis episode on kinetic molecular theory (KMT) explains gas behavior through five fundamental postulates. These are: gas molecules are in constant, random motion; they have negligible volume; there are no intermolecular forces between them; all collisions are perfectly elastic; and their average kinetic energy is directly proportional to absolute temperature. This framework helps explain gas laws by showing that pressure results from molecular collisions and that changes in temperature alter molecular speed. The episode notes that while KMT is a model for ideal gases, it helps us understand real gases by highlighting where assumptions break down, such as at...
2025-09-1808 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Ideal Gas LawThis episode explains the Ideal Gas Law as a universal equation that combines all the individual gas laws. It introduces the equation's components—pressure (P), volume (V), moles (n), the universal gas constant (R), and absolute temperature (T) in Kelvin—and emphasize the importance of using the correct units for R. The episode outlines a systematic approach for solving problems and provides examples for calculating volume, pressure, temperature, and moles. It also demonstrates how to use the Ideal Gas Law to determine the molar mass of an unknown gas from its density.
2025-09-1810 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Gas Laws (Part 2)This episode explains three additional gas laws including the unifying Combined Gas Law. It first introduces Gay-Lussac's Law, which states that pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature at constant volume. Next, it covers Avogadro's Law, which describes the direct relationship between a gas's volume and the number of moles. The episode then introduces the Combined Gas Law, a powerful tool for solving problems where multiple variables change simultaneously. It concludes by highlighting the importance of using Kelvin for all temperature calculations and providing a systematic approach for solving complex gas law problems.
2025-09-1710 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Gas Laws (Part 1)This episode explains two fundamental gas laws: Boyle's Law and Charles's Law. It explains that Boyle's Law describes the inverse relationship between pressure and volume at constant temperature, using a scuba diving example to illustrate how an increase in pressure causes a decrease in volume. Charles's Law describes the direct relationship between a gas's volume and its absolute temperature in Kelvin, emphasizing that temperature must be in Kelvin for the math to work. The episode uses a hot air balloon analogy and a practical problem to demonstrate how heating a gas increases its volume.
2025-09-1610 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Solution StoichiometryThis episode explains how to perform solution stoichiometry using molarity as the key conversion factor. It breaks down the process into a simple flow: use molarity to convert solution volume to moles, apply the mole ratio from the balanced equation, and then convert to the final requested units. It provides examples, including a limiting reactant problem, and highlight common mistakes such as forgetting to convert milliliters to liters. It concludes by emphasizing that solution stoichiometry uses the same fundamental principles as other stoichiometry problems, with molarity providing a new path to the central concept of the mole.
2025-09-1610 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Gas Stoichiometry (Non-Standard Conditions)This episode explains how to perform non-STP gas stoichiometry using the Ideal Gas Law (PV=nRT). It emphasizes that this method is crucial for real-world applications where gases are not at standard conditions, rendering the 22.4 L/mol conversion factor invalid. The episode demonstrates how to use the Ideal Gas Law to convert gas volumes to moles and vice versa, even in problems involving mixed conditions or different phases.
2025-09-1510 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Gas Stoichiometry at STPThis episode explains how to use gas stoichiometry at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP). It defines STP as 0°C and 1 atm, where one mole of any ideal gas occupies 22.4 liters. The episode demonstrates how this value serves as a key conversion factor for solving stoichiometry problems, allowing you to convert between gas volumes and moles. It works through examples, including a limiting reactant problem, and emphasizes that this shortcut only applies at STP.
2025-09-1509 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Excess ReactantsThis episode explains how to calculate excess reactants, which is the amount of unreacted substance left over after a chemical reaction. It emphasizes that you must first identify the limiting reactant, the substance that gets completely consumed. It outlines two methods for calculating the excess amount: either by determining how much of the excess reactant is consumed and subtracting that from the initial amount, or by calculating the required amount and subtracting that from the available amount. It walks through examples and concludes by highlighting the importance of this calculation for a complete understanding of a chemical reaction.
2025-09-1510 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Limiting ReactantIn this episode the concept of limiting reactants is explained, which determines the maximum amount of product that can be formed in a chemical reaction. Using a sandwich analogy, it defines the limiting reactant as the substance that runs out first. It outlines a method for identifying it: calculate the potential product yield for each reactant, and the one that yields the least product is the limiting reactant. All subsequent calculations for product yield or remaining excess reactants must be based on the limiting reactant. The episode provides examples and a systematic approach to solving these problems, highlighting the...
2025-09-1510 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Stoichiometry (Using BCA Tables)This episode is the final episode in the introduction to stoichiometry series. It introduces BCA tables (Before, Change, After) as an alternative, visual method for solving stoichiometry problems. It explains that this table format helps track the quantities of all substances in a reaction simultaneously. The hosts guide through the three rows of the table: the "Before" row for initial amounts, the "Change" row for how quantities are consumed or produced using mole ratios, and the "After" row for the final amounts.
2025-09-1510 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Stoichiometry (Gram-to-Gram)This episode focuses on gram-to-gram stoichiometry, a practical skill for converting between the masses of different substances in a chemical reaction. They explain a three-step process: convert the given mass to moles using molar mass, use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to find the moles of the desired substance, and then convert those moles back to grams. It emphasizes that moles are the crucial intermediate step, acting as a bridge between reactants and products. The episode provides several examples, including working backward from a desired product mass, and highlights common mistakes and the importance of a methodical...
2025-09-1510 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Stoichiometry (Mole-to-Mole Conversion)This episode introduces stoichiometry, the calculation of quantities in chemical reactions. This is part 1 in a 3 episode series. This first episode explains that the mole ratios from a balanced chemical equation are the key to all calculations. Using dimensional analysis, it demonstrates how to perform mole-to-mole conversions, emphasizing that unit cancellation ensures the correct setup. It works through several examples and also shows how to work backward from a desired product amount to find the necessary reactant quantity. The episode concludes with a review of common mistakes, reinforcing the importance of using a balanced equation and setting up mole...
2025-09-1509 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Percent Yield and Percent ErrorThis episode simplifies the concepts of percent yield and percent error. It explains that percent yield measures the efficiency of a chemical reaction by comparing the actual amount of product obtained to the theoretical amount calculated from stoichiometry. It discusses factors that can cause yields to be less than 100%, such as side reactions or material loss. Percent error, on the other hand, measures the accuracy of a lab measurement by comparing an experimental value to an accepted value. The episode provides examples for calculating both, highlighting the importance of these concepts in evaluating and improving chemical experiments.
2025-09-1509 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Double Displacement ReactionsThis episode explains that double displacement reactions involve two compounds trading ions, following the pattern AB + CD → AD + CB. These reactions require a driving force to occur, such as the formation of a precipitate (an insoluble solid), a gas, or water. For instance, reacting silver nitrate with sodium chloride produces a precipitate, while an acid-base reaction creates water. It emphasizes the importance of checking for a driving force and correctly balancing the charges of the new compounds to predict the reaction's outcome.
2025-09-1309 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Single Replacement ReactionThis episode explains that single replacement reactions involve one element replacing another in a compound, following the pattern A + BC → AC + B. The outcome is determined by the activity series, a ranking of elements by reactivity. A more reactive element will displace a less reactive one. It uses examples like zinc and copper sulfate to illustrate a successful reaction and copper and zinc sulfate to demonstrate when no reaction occurs.
2025-09-1309 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Types of ReactionsIn this episode, the five main types of chemical reactions are explained as a way to predict chemical behavior. A synthesis reaction combines two or more reactants into one product, while decomposition is the reverse, breaking one reactant into multiple products. Single replacement involves one element replacing another in a compound, whereas double replacement is where two compounds trade ions. Lastly, a combustion reaction typically involves a hydrocarbon reacting with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. The key to identifying these reactions is recognizing their unique patterns.
2025-09-1306 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Balancing Chemical EquationsThis episode explains that balancing chemical equations is crucial because it upholds the Law of Conservation of Mass, ensuring the same number of atoms on both sides of a reaction. The process involves only changing coefficients, the numbers in front of chemical formulas, never the subscripts. It provides a four-step method: count atoms, start with the most complex molecule, adjust coefficients, and then check all elements. The episode offers examples for various reaction types and concludes with a reminder that this skill is fundamental to understanding chemistry.
2025-09-1307 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Avogadro's NumberThis episode discusses Avogadro's number, which represents the number of particles in one mole. It explains that this number is the key to converting between the number of particles and a substance's mass. The episode details a two-step conversion process: using molar mass to convert mass to moles, and then using Avogadro's number to convert moles to particles. The episode emphasizes using dimensional analysis correctly and understanding the difference between molecules and formula units.
2025-09-1210 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Empirical FormulaThis episode explains how to find a compound's empirical formula—the simplest whole-number ratio of its elements. It presents a four-step method: (1) convert mass or mass percent to moles, (2) divide all mole values by the smallest number, (3) convert the resulting ratios to whole numbers, and (4) write the formula. The episode demonstrates how this process works for both simple and hydrated compounds and explain how to use the empirical formula to determine the molecular formula if the molar mass is known.
2025-09-1209 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Combustion AnalysisThis episode discusses combustion analysis, a method for determining an organic compound's empirical formula by burning it completely and analyzing the products. They explain that all the carbon becomes CO2 and all the hydrogen goes into the H2O produced, which allows for the original masses of these elements to be calculated from the product masses. The episode outlines a four-step process: measure the masses of the products, use stoichiometry to find the masses of carbon and hydrogen, find the mass of oxygen by difference, and finally, convert the masses to moles to determine the empirical formula. This technique is...
2025-09-1209 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Mass PercentThis episode discusses mass percent, a way to express the mass contribution of each element in a compound. It defines it with the formula: (mass of the element / total mass of the compound) x 100%. The episode provides a step-by-step guide on how to calculate mass percent, using examples like H₂O, CO₂, and more complex compounds. It highlights that mass percent shows the actual mass contribution of each element, which can be counterintuitive, and advise students to always check that their final percentages sum to 100%.
2025-09-1209 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Molar MassThis episode discusses molar mass, defining it as the mass of one mole of a substance in grams. It explain that it's numerically equal to an element's atomic mass, making the periodic table a direct tool for calculations. The episode demonstrates how to find molar mass for elements and compounds, including those with parentheses, by systematically adding the masses of all constituent atoms. It emphasizes that mastering this skill is crucial for all quantitative chemistry, as it provides the essential link between the atomic and macroscopic worlds.
2025-09-1208 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Simple Organic NomenclatureThis episode introduces organic nomenclature, a new system for naming hydrocarbons like alkanes and alkenes. Alkanes (single bonds) are named using a prefix for the carbon chain length followed by -ane. Alkenes (double bonds) use the same prefixes but end with -ene and require a number to indicate the double bond's location. This systematic approach is essential for navigating organic chemistry, as it's based on the molecule's structure rather than charges.
2025-09-0908 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Acids NomenclatureThis episode explains acid naming, which combines rules from both ionic and covalent nomenclature. Acids are split into two types: binary acids and oxyacids. Binary acids (hydrogen + a nonmetal) are named using the pattern hydro- + nonmetal root + -ic acid, such as with hydrochloric acid (HCl). Oxyacids (hydrogen + a polyatomic ion) are named based on the polyatomic ion's suffix: -ate becomes -ic acid, and -ite becomes -ous acid. This system helps to clearly name acids and write their formulas by identifying the anion and balancing its charge with the correct number of hydrogen atoms.
2025-09-0910 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Covalent Compound NomenclatureThis episode explains the systematic rules for naming binary covalent compounds. Unlike ionic compounds that are named by balancing charges, covalent compounds are named by counting atoms and using numerical prefixes. The first element is named normally, while the second element gets an "-ide" ending. Prefixes like "di-" or "tri-" indicate the number of atoms, with "mono-" only used for the second element. The episode also notes common exceptions like water and ammonia, and provides a simple, step-by-step approach to avoid common naming mistakes.
2025-09-0910 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Introduction to LightThis episode explores the properties of light and its connection to chemistry. It explains that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that acts as both a wave and a particle (photon). Key relationships are introduced: c=λv, which links wavelength and frequency, and Planck's equation, E=hv, which shows energy is proportional to frequency. The episode highlights that atoms absorb or emit light in specific amounts of energy, which explains why each element has a unique color "fingerprint." This is the basis for spectroscopy, a powerful tool used to identify substances and analyze molecular structure.
2025-09-0708 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Shielding and Effective Nuclear ChargeThis episode explores how electron shielding and effective nuclear charge are crucial for understanding atomic behavior and periodic trends. It explains that electron shielding occurs when inner-shell electrons act like a physical barrier, blocking the full positive charge of the nucleus from reaching the outer electrons. This creates a reduced attraction known as the effective nuclear charge (Zeff). This key concept helps explain why atomic radius decreases across a period (because Zeff increases) and why it increases down a group (because new electron shells provide greater shielding). The episode emphasizes that understanding these concepts is vital for predicting an atom...
2025-09-0710 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Significant FiguresThis episode explains significant figures, which are the meaningful digits in a number that reflect a measurement's precision. It outlines rules for identifying them: non-zero digits are always significant; leading zeros are never significant; and trailing zeros are significant only if there's a decimal point. It notes that scientific notation is the best way to avoid ambiguity. The rules for calculations are different for addition/subtraction (limited by decimal places) versus multiplication/division (limited by significant figures). The episode stresses that significant figures are a crucial tool for honest scientific communication.
2025-09-0609 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Intermolecular ForcesThis episode explains intermolecular forces (IMFs), the attractions between molecules that determine physical properties. The three main types are: London dispersion forces (present in all molecules and weakest), dipole-dipole interactions (between polar molecules), and hydrogen bonds (the strongest, occurring when H is bonded to N, O, or F). It emphasizes that a molecule's polarity determines which IMFs are present. The stronger the IMFs, the higher a substance's boiling point, viscosity, and surface tension. It uses examples like water's high boiling point and oil's immiscibility to illustrate how these forces work.
2025-09-0610 minCHEMDUNNTopic: VSEPR TheoryThis episode explains VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory, a method for predicting the three-dimensional shapes of molecules. The core principle is that electron pairs around a central atom repel each other and arrange themselves as far apart as possible. It outlines a five-step process that distinguishes between electron geometry (the arrangement of all electron pairs) and molecular geometry (the arrangement of only the atoms). They use water and ammonia as examples to show how lone pairs exert more repulsion than bonding pairs, which affects bond angles. They also clarify that multiple bonds count as a single electron...
2025-09-0607 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Formal ChargeThis episode explains formal charge, a tool for evaluating Lewis structures. It defines formal charge with the formula FC = V - N - B/2 and outline key rules for its use, such as minimizing charges and placing negative charges on more electronegative atoms. It shows how formal charge helps choose the best structure for molecules like carbon monoxide and justifies expanded octets. The episode stresses that formal charge provides a systematic way to determine the most realistic molecular structure.
2025-09-0608 minCHEMDUNNTopic: ResonanceThis episode explains resonance, where a molecule cannot be accurately represented by a single Lewis structure. Resonance occurs when multiple valid Lewis structures can be drawn by moving only electrons, not atoms. The real molecule is a resonance hybrid, a blend of all possible structures. This electron delocalization leads to increased molecular stability and identical bond lengths that are an average of single and double bonds. The episode uses the carbonate ion (CO23-) as a primary example to illustrate the concept.
2025-09-0606 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Expanded OctetThis episode discusses three exceptions to the octet rule: incomplete octets (e.g., boron in BF3), odd electron species with an unpaired electron (e.g., NO), and expanded octets (e.g., sulfur in SF6). It explains that atoms in period 3 and beyond can have expanded octets due to available d orbitals. It emphasizes that while most molecules follow the rule, these exceptions are predictable based on an atom's period and total electron count and are crucial for understanding molecular behavior.
2025-09-0608 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Types of Compounds & PropertiesThis episode classifies compounds into three types based on their chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic. Ionic compounds, formed by electron transfer, are brittle with high melting points and conduct electricity when molten. Covalent compounds, formed by electron sharing, have lower melting points and poor conductivity, with the exception of network covalent materials. Metallic compounds, with their "sea" of electrons, are conductive, malleable, and have high melting points. It explains how the electronegativity difference between atoms can be used to predict the type of bonding and resulting properties.
2025-09-0509 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Lewis StructuresThis episode provides a six-step guide to drawing Lewis structures, diagrams that show how valence electrons are arranged in molecules. It explains how to count electrons, identify a central atom, and connect atoms with single or multiple bonds to satisfy the octet rule. Using examples like water and carbon dioxide, it walks through the process and point out common errors. The episode stresses that mastering these structures is essential for understanding molecular properties.
2025-09-0507 minCHEMDUNNTopic: UV-VIS SpectrosopyThis episode explains UV-Vis spectroscopy, an analytical technique that measures how much ultraviolet and visible light a substance absorbs. It describe how the instrument works, its main components, and the Beer-Lambert Law (A=ɛbc), which shows that a sample's absorbance is directly proportional to its concentration. It also explains how to use this principle to calculate unknown concentrations and create a calibration curve. It concludes by highlighting the wide range of practical applications for UV-Vis spectroscopy in fields like pharmaceuticals and environmental science.
2025-09-0508 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Diamagnetism & ParamagnetismThis episode explains that an atom's or molecule's magnetic behavior, either diamagnetism or paramagnetism, is determined by its electron configuration. Diamagnetism is present in all substances with paired electrons, resulting in a weak repulsion from magnets. Paramagnetism occurs in substances with unpaired electrons, which are attracted to magnets. It explains how to predict a substance's magnetic properties by examining its orbital diagram for unpaired electrons, using examples like carbon (paramagnetic) and neon (diamagnetic).
2025-09-0507 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Quantum NumbersThis episode explains that quantum numbers are a set of four values that serve as a unique address for every electron. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers. The four numbers are: n (principal, for energy level), l (angular momentum, for orbital shape), ml (magnetic, for orbital orientation), and ms (spin, for electron direction). These numbers relate directly to electron configuration and change when an atom forms an ion.
2025-09-0209 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Electron ConfigurationThis episode defines electron configuration as the arrangement of electrons in an atom's orbitals. It explain two notation methods: standard notation (e.g., 1s2) and orbital box notation, and outlines the three fundamental filling rules: the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. It introduce noble gas shorthand for larger atoms and discuss notable exceptions like chromium and copper, which achieve extra stability with half-filled or completely filled orbitals. The episode also covers how electron configurations change for ions and highlights that the shape of the periodic table directly reflects the filling of s, p, d, and f...
2025-09-0110 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Atomic OrbitalsThink of an electron's path around an atom. If you're imagining a planet orbiting the sun, think again! In this episode, we're diving into the strange and fascinating world of atomic orbitals. We'll explain why electrons don't follow neat, predictable paths and instead inhabit "probability clouds." You'll learn the unique shapes of the four main types of orbitals—s, p, d, and f—and how they determine an atom's chemistry. Tune in to understand the true nature of electrons and how these invisible shapes are the key to everything in the universe.
2025-08-2109 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Atomic TrendsThis episode dives into the predictable patterns of the periodic table, or "atomic trends," that help us understand how elements behave. It explains how properties like atomic radius (the size of an atom), electronegativity (its attraction for electrons), and ionization energy (the energy required to remove an electron) change as you move across a period or down a group. By breaking down these fundamental concepts, the episode provides listeners with the tools to predict an element's characteristics and how it will interact with other elements in chemical reactions.
2025-08-2110 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Isotopic NotationEvery element has a unique identity, but what about its different "versions"? In this episode, we're cracking the code of isotopic notation, the shorthand chemists use to describe an atom's specific makeup. You'll learn how to read and write these symbols, understanding what the atomic number (the number of protons) and the mass number (protons plus neutrons) tell us about an atom. Get ready to uncover the hidden details of atoms and understand their true individuality!
2025-08-1810 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Dimensional AnalysisEver need to convert miles to feet or milliliters to gallons? Dimensional analysis, also known as the factor-label method, is your secret weapon! In this episode, we're demystifying this powerful technique that allows you to solve complex conversion problems with ease. We'll show you how to set up problems using conversion factors to cancel out units, transforming a seemingly difficult math problem into a simple multiplication and division exercise. From converting between different systems of measurement to tackling multi-step calculations, you'll learn to see units as your guide. Get ready to connect the dots and make every conversion a...
2025-08-1810 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Accuracy vs. PrecisionEver wonder why two words that seem so similar are so different to a scientist? In this episode, we're drawing a clear line between accuracy and precision, two critical concepts in every lab and experiment. We'll use a simple analogy—like throwing darts at a dartboard—to show you the difference between getting a result that's close to the true value (accuracy) and getting consistent, repeatable results (precision). You'll learn how to identify data that is accurate, precise, both, or neither. Whether you're in a chemistry lab, a biology class, or just want to understand the data you see ever...
2025-08-1809 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Scientific NotationEver stared at a number with a dozen zeros and felt your head spin? That’s where scientific notation comes in! In this episode, we're unraveling the genius of this mathematical tool that chemists use every day. We'll show you how to easily convert massive numbers (like the distance to the sun) and tiny ones (like the size of an atom) into a simple, compact format. We'll break down the parts of scientific notation—the coefficient, the base, and the exponent—and give you the simple rules for multiplying and dividing these numbers without a calculator. Get ready to conque...
2025-08-1710 minCHEMDUNNTopic: DensityWhat makes a bowling ball sink and a beach ball float? The answer is density! In this episode, we're unlocking one of chemistry's properties. We'll demystify what density truly is—a measure of how much 'stuff' is packed into a given space. You'll learn the simple formula (density = mass/volume) and discover how it explains why some objects are heavy for their size while others are surprisingly light. Tune in and find out what makes things sink, float, or hang in perfect balance!
2025-08-1710 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Classification of MatterEverything you see, touch, and even breathe is matter. But how do scientists organize and understand the vast variety of substances in the universe? In this episode, we're tackling the classification of matter. We'll journey through the basic building blocks, from elements to compounds, and explore the difference between a pure substance and a mixture. We'll also break down the two main types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous, giving you the tools to identify them in your everyday life. Get ready to put your sorting hat on and see the world in a whole new way!
2025-08-1610 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Preparing a SolutionReady to master the art of chemical mixing? In this episode, we're stepping into the lab to show you how to accurately and safely prepare a solution. From understanding the difference between a solute and a solvent to using a volumetric flask, we'll walk you through the essential steps that chemists use every day. We'll cover everything from simple dilutions to creating a solution with a specific concentration. Whether you're a budding scientist or just want to impress your friends with your lab skills, this episode is your go-to guide for flawless solution preparation.
2025-08-1610 minCHEMDUNNTopic: MolarityJoin us on this episode as we dive deep into the world of molarity, a fundamental concept in chemistry that's way more than just a fancy word. Have you ever wondered how scientists precisely measure the concentration of a solution? Or what makes one acid stronger than another? Molarity is the key! We'll break down the basics, from moles and liters to the simple formula that unlocks a universe of chemical calculations. Whether you're a student tackling a tough homework problem or just curious about how things are made, this episode will demystify molarity and show you why it's...
2025-08-1610 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Collision Theory and the Arrhenius EquationThis episode explains the fundamental principles of collision theory, stating that molecular collisions are necessary for reactions to occur, and that both proper orientation and sufficient energy are required for effective collisions. It introduces the concept of activation energy, the minimum energy needed for a reaction, and the unstable transition state formed during a successful collision. Finally, the episode discusses the Arrhenius equation, which quantifies the relationship between reaction rate constants, temperature, and activation energy, demonstrating how these factors influence the speed of a chemical reaction.
2025-05-0809 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Limiting ReactantThis episode explains the concept of limiting reactants in chemical reactions. It uses the analogy of making pairs of gloves to illustrate how the reactant present in the smaller amount (the limiting reactant) determines the maximum amount of product formed. The episode then demonstrates how to identify the limiting reactant and calculate the theoretical yield of product using stoichiometry, working through several example problems involving different reactants and products.
Learn more: https://www.chemdunn.com/limiting-reactant
2024-12-2909 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Molar MassThis episode explains how to calculate the molar mass of a chemical compound, which is the mass of one mole (6.022 x 1023 units) of that substance. It details the process for both molecular and ionic compounds, using examples such as methane, juglone, and calcium carbonate.
For more: https://www.chemdunn.com/molar-mass
2024-12-2910 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Hess's LawHess's Law describes how the total enthalpy change of a reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its individual steps. Because enthalpy is a state function, the overall enthalpy change remains constant regardless of the reaction pathway.
For more: https://www.chemdunn.com/hess-law
2024-12-2907 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Heat FlowThis episode introduces thermochemistry, exploring energy's various forms and transformations. It defines energy, heat, and temperature, differentiating between potential and kinetic energy and explaining their roles in chemical and physical changes. It discusses heat transfer and its relationship to thermal energy, describing exothermic and endothermic processes. Finally, it emphasizes the law of conservation of energy and its implications for chemical and physical phenomena.
For more: https://www.chemdunn.com/heat-flow
2024-12-2914 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Covalent NomenclatureThis episode explains the nomenclature of binary covalent compounds, highlighting the system of prefixes (like mono, di, tri) used to indicate the number of atoms of each element. It contrasts this systematic naming with common names like "water," explaining that while the system generally follows rules of assigning suffixes like -ide, exceptions exist due to established usage. The discussion also touches upon the interesting question of why common names persist despite the systematic approach.
2024-12-1010 minCHEMDUNNTopic: Ionic NomenclatureThis episode explains the systematic naming conventions for inorganic binary compounds, which are compounds composed of two elements. It covers ionic compounds, focusing on how to determine the name of a compound based on its chemical formula and vice versa. The episode differentiates between Type I binary ionic compounds, which contain a metal that forms only one type of cation, and Type II binary ionic compounds, which contain metals that can form multiple types of cations. It also discusses the naming of compounds containing polyatomic ions, which are groups of atoms that carry a charge. Finally, the episode provides a flo...
2024-11-1417 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Electrochemistry - Electrolytic cells and ElectroplatingThis episode explains the fundamentals of electrochemistry, focusing on electrolytic cells and electroplating. It defines key terms like oxidation, reduction, anode, and cathode, highlighting the difference between galvanic and electrolytic cells. It then delves into electrolysis, explaining how to determine the products of an electrolytic reaction and how to calculate the amount of substance produced using Faraday's laws.
2024-10-1314 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Electrochemistry - Redox and Galvanic CellsThis episode provides a detailed explanation of electrochemistry, focusing on redox reactions and galvanic cells. It covers fundamental concepts like oxidation and reduction, balancing redox reactions, and cell potential calculations. It also describes electrochemical cells, including their components and how they operate, as well as the relationship between cell potential, free energy, and equilibrium.
2024-10-1312 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Buffers and TitrationsThis episode explains the concept of buffers, their applications in titrations, and how to calculate the pH of a buffered solution. It outlines the key components of buffers, which are a weak acid and its conjugate base, and the chemical reactions involved in how they resist changes in pH upon the addition of strong acids or bases. It also emphasizes the use of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation to calculate the pH of a buffer solution, highlighting the importance of the ratio of the acid to base concentrations in determining the pH. Lastly, it discusses the preparation of buffer solutions and...
2024-10-1311 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Acid-Base EquilibriumThis episode is about acid-base equilibrium. It defines acids and bases according to Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry, emphasizing the concepts of conjugate acid-base pairs and the importance of understanding ionization. It goes on to explain the relationship between acid strength and ionization, highlighting the difference between strong and weak acids and bases. It then delves into the calculation of pH for weak acids and bases using the Ka and Kb constants, and finally explores the impact of salts on pH through hydrolysis. The episode concludes with a cheat sheet summarizing the key concepts and relationships related to acid-base equilibrium.
2024-10-1310 minCHEMDUNNLearn: EquilibriumThis episode focuses on chemical equilibrium and solubility equilibrium, key concepts in chemistry. It explains how to determine the direction of a reaction, the equilibrium constant (K), and the factors that affect it. The text also covers Le Châtelier's principle, which describes how a system at equilibrium responds to changes in conditions. Finally, it explores solubility equilibrium, including the solubility product constant (Ksp), and how to predict whether a precipitate will form.
2024-10-1310 minCHEMDUNNLearn: ThermochemistryThis episode provides a comprehensive overview of thermochemistry, focusing on the concepts of internal energy, heat flow, and enthalpy, all key elements in understanding chemical reactions. It explains how to calculate heat using calorimetry and specific heat capacity and introduces the enthalpy of formation and Hess's Law as tools for determining enthalpy change. It also delves into using bond energies to calculate enthalpy changes and provides a cheat sheet summarizing important relationships and potential pitfalls in thermochemistry.
2024-10-1316 minCHEMDUNNLearn: ThermodynamicsThis episode provides a comprehensive overview of thermodynamics, focusing on concepts like enthalpy, entropy, and free energy. It outlines the laws of thermodynamics, explains how to calculate heat, and discusses the relationship between enthalpy, entropy, and free energy. The epsiode further delves into the application of these concepts to chemical reactions, including calculating enthalpy changes using Hess's Law, and explains how entropy and free energy influence the spontaneity of a reaction.
2024-10-1323 minCHEMDUNNKinetics - Integrated RatesThis episode focused on integrated rates in chemical kinetics and explains how to determine the order of a reaction by analyzing the linear relationship between reactant concentration and time on various graphs. It also provides the integrated rate laws for zero-order, first-order, and second-order reactions, highlighting the importance of the rate constant (k) and its relationship to the slope of the graph. It further discusses half-life as a measure of the time required for the concentration of a reactant to decrease by half, along with key connections to stoichiometry, electrochemistry, and thermochemistry.
2024-10-1313 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Kinetics - Rates and MechanismsThis episode describes chemical kinetics, the study of how fast chemical reactions proceed. It explains the collision theory, which posits that molecules must collide with sufficient energy and the correct orientation to react. It then explores factors that affect reaction rates, including temperature, concentration, surface area, and the presence of catalysts. It also discusses rate laws and how they relate to the rate constant, reaction order, and the mechanism of the reaction. Finally, it explains how to identify intermediates and catalysts within a mechanism and emphasizes the importance of the rate-determining step in determining the overall reaction rate.
2024-10-1312 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Gas LawsThis episodes focuses on the behavior of gases. It highlights key concepts and formulas, such as the ideal gas law (PV=nRT), and how gases deviate from ideal behavior under certain conditions. It also emphasizes the relationships between gas properties like pressure, volume, and temperature, as well as the importance of Kelvin temperature for gas calculations. It concludes with a discussion of Boyle's and Charles' laws and the importance of understanding how gas behavior is represented graphically.
2024-10-1206 minCHEMDUNNAbout AP® Chemistry CourseThis episode outlines the requirements for the College Board's AP Chemistry course, which is designed to provide students with a robust understanding of chemical principles at various levels: macroscopic, microscopic, sub-microscopic, and symbolic.
It details the course's two essential components: Science Practices and Course Content. The science practices are a set of skills students must develop and apply throughout the course, such as analyzing models and representations, designing experiments, and interpreting data. The course content is organized into units of study that cover specific chemical concepts and topics. The document provides a detailed breakdown of each science prac...
2024-10-1212 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Intermolecular ForcesThis episode explains the various types of intermolecular forces (IMFs) and how they affect the properties of matter. It begins by describing how IMFs influence the states of matter, including solids, liquids, and gases. It then explores specific types of IMFs, such as London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, dipole-induced dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding. The source delves into how IMFs play a role in the properties of different types of solids, including molecular, covalent network, metallic, and ionic solids. Additionally, the episode examines the influence of IMFs on liquid properties like surface tension, capillary action, boiling point, and vapor...
2024-10-1215 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "E" is for ExerciseThis episode emphasizes the importance of actively using knowledge to strengthen memories and promote lifelong learning. It advocates for “exercising” one’s neurons through various methods, including applying newly learned concepts, embracing challenges, using "Muddy Cards" to focus on unclear areas, and writing "Minute Papers" to assess comprehension. It further encourages applying knowledge in real-world situations, particularly by engaging with the community, to make learning more meaningful and beneficial for society.
2024-10-1205 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "S" is for SleepThe episode advocates for prioritizing sleep as a key factor in learning and overall well-being. It emphasizes the importance of sleep for memory consolidation, highlighting how the brain reactivates and stores important experiences during sleep. It outlines practical strategies for maximizing sleep quality, including minimizing exposure to artificial light, reducing caffeine intake in the afternoon, and scheduling study sessions to allow for sleep-filled recovery periods.
2024-10-1205 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "P" is for PersonalizeThis episode focuses on the importance of personalizing learning by using an acronym called SYNAPSE. The "P" in SYNAPSE represents "personalize," which is a key strategy to make learning more engaging and effective. The episode suggests that by connecting learning to one's own life experiences, character strengths, and cultural background, students can boost their motivation, memory, and overall understanding. It also emphasizes the importance of reflecting on one's unique strengths and how these strengths can be leveraged to create more effective learning strategies.
2024-10-1204 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "A" is for AssociateThis episode describes a learning strategy which encourages learners to connect new ideas to their existing knowledge base. The strategy involves creating concept maps, which are visual representations of relationships between concepts. By connecting new information to familiar concepts, learners can improve comprehension, memorization, and retention. It advocates for incorporating personal experiences, collaborating with peers, and using visual representations to enhance the learning process. The strategy emphasizes that this approach fosters a more dynamic and effective learning experience, promoting deeper understanding and more efficient knowledge acquisition.
2024-10-1205 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "N" is for Narrate "N is for Narrate" introduces Narrate, a study strategy that helps students overcome the feeling of being overwhelmed by new material. The method encourages students to transform complex topics into narratives by exploring key concepts, identifying actors and their relationships, and pinpointing crucial turning points. The process encourages students to think critically and creatively by drawing parallels to storytelling elements such as narrative arcs, characters, climaxes, and resolutions. By leveraging the power of storytelling and personal schema, Narrate aims to facilitate deeper understanding, improve memorability, and foster a sense of community among learners.
2024-10-1208 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "Y" is for YesThis is the second part in the series of SYNAPSE. It argues that learning is a skill that can be developed through practice, and it encourages students to adopt a "growth mindset," which involves believing that they can improve their learning abilities. The episode highlights the importance of saying "Yes!" to affirm this belief and provides several strategies for students to implement in order to enhance their learning, including reflecting on past learning experiences, visualizing success, and seeking feedback from mentors and teachers. It emphasizes the importance of deliberate practice and a positive mindset in achieving academic success.
2024-10-1212 minCHEMDUNNSYNAPSE: "S" is for SimplifyReduce the process to its core elements, managing attention, complexity, cognitive load, and stress.
SYNAPSE was created by Christine Marshall. Read more about her work here.
2024-10-1205 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Bonding, Lewis structures and Molecular geometryThis episode explores the different types of chemical bonds, including ionic, covalent, and metallic. It then goes on to explain the concepts of Lewis structures and VSEPR theory, which are used to predict the shapes of molecules and the bond angles between atoms. It also explores the concepts of polarity, bond energy, and formal charge, providing examples and guidelines for understanding these important chemical concepts.
2024-10-1111 minCHEMDUNNLearn: Atomic Structure and PeriodicityThis episode dives into atomic structure and periodicity, focusing on how the arrangement of electrons within an atom impacts various chemical properties. It begins by introducing fundamental concepts like Coulomb's Law, electrostatic potential energy, and the photoelectric effect, explaining how these factors influence the behavior of electrons in atoms. Then we examine photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) as a method to measure ionization energies and deduce the shell structure of atoms. We further dive into electron configurations, connecting them to the patterns observed in PES data and illustrating how they correlate with the periodic table. Finally, episode explores the trends in...
2024-10-1112 min