Shows
Aging-USBehind the Study: Using Methylation Clocks to Evaluate Anti-Aging InterventionsDr. Josh Mitteldorf summarizes his #research perspective #published in Volume 17, Issue 5 of Aging (Aging-US), titled “Methylation clocks for evaluation of anti-aging interventions.”
DOI - https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.206245
Corresponding author - Josh Mitteldorf - aging.advice@gmail.com
Author interview - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=efgNvr5ezTk
Video short - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YjUvpqMzCGc
Abstract
Methylation clocks have found their way into the community of aging research as a way to test anti-aging interventions without having to wait for mortality statistics. But methylation is a primary means of epigenetic control, and presumably has evolved under stro...2025-06-1918 min
Aging-USWhy Epigenetic Clocks May Fail to Measure Anti-Aging EffectsBUFFALO, NY — June 10, 2025 — A new #research perspective was #published in Aging (Aging-US) Volume 17, Issue 5, on May 5, 2025, titled “Methylation clocks for evaluation of anti-aging interventions.”
In this perspective article, Dr. Josh Mitteldorf explores how current epigenetic clocks—used to estimate biological age—might mislead scientists trying to evaluate anti-aging therapies. The paper challenges a widespread assumption: that all changes in DNA methylation with age are equally valid for measuring biological decline. Dr. Mitteldorf proposes that failing to distinguish between different types of epigenetic changes could lead to inaccurate conclusions, potentially even favoring treatments that reduce repair processes rather than extend healthy lifespan.
Me...2025-06-1004 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on Science, Values, and PoliticsBitchute link Rumble link (missing last 20 min.)Anti-aging scientist Josh Mitteldorf has a somewhat different take on libertarianism from my live show’s first hour guest Etienne de la Boetie, as Josh explains in “Science and Politics, Libertarian and Socialist.” While aligned with Libertarians in support of free speech and opposition to war and government surveillance, Josh writes, “I part company when it comes to the libertarian credo of the sanctity of private property…Private property is not a God-given right, and it is certainly not ‘natural law.’ The earth doesn’t belong to me, and the fact that I dig u...2024-08-2554 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on UFO/ET Issue, Diversity of Jewish Agendas, and Other Big QuestionsRRumble linkJosh Mitteldorf wins my vote as the most interesting science writer out there. (Sometimes way out there…) His work is always sensible, well-informed, well-argued, and uncowed by mainstream dogma.Josh has been writing on the UFO-ET issue and its publicizers Daniel Sheehan and Phil Schneider, as well as science and psi, digital mind-control, the hybrid/reptilian/insectoid Peruvian mummies, and much more.We also discuss and critique the way terms like Jews/Jewish and Zionist(s) are used, keeping in mind the diversity of Jewish agendas, the overrepresentation of J...2024-04-1556 min
Leafbox PodcastInterview: Josh Mitteldorf, PhDJosh Mitteldorf, is a science writer, researcher in biology of aging, and poet, with a rebellious spirit and persistent curiosity. His interests span all the biggest topics in current affairs, as well as eternal questions of the human condition. Who is behind the pandemic and other assaults on humanity? Why do ETs look like us? Can the future reach back in time to cause the past? Are there transformative technologies, available to a select few that have been withheld from the public?Dr Mitteldorf earned a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Pennsylvania. He has...2024-02-141h 03
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on “Anomalies, Mysteries, and Consiracies”Scientist Josh Mitteldorf, trained in physics and accomplished in biology, is not afraid to ask taboo questions about such incendiary issues as UFOs, ESP, free energy, weaponized weather, hidden history, and of course the kinds of political conspiracies discussed on this show. Among his recent posts is “Anomalies, mysteries, conspiracies…maybe they are all related.” It ends with this remarkable hypothesis:“The story of our universe is the story of Consciousness creating a domain for itself and a playground for its myriad dissociated aspects. A very particular set of scientific laws was needed to make life possible, and the...2024-01-1257 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastCovert Wars & Breakaway Civilizations by Joseph P FarrellFarrell tells the story of post-war American intelligence operations, confronting the USSR as a nuclear-armed enemy and simultaneously the Roswell incident, and other demonstrations that Somebody or Something is capable of penetrating our airspaces with technology that is way over our heads. The fear of the Soviets was transferred over toward a fear of the ETs, and a culture of paranoia was created, in which secrecy and crime were justified by the perceived need to respond to these powerful enemies.While Farrell makes a plausible case for the attitudes that led to a breakaway civilization, he does...2024-01-1152 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastThe Zeroth Law of ScienceEinstein wrote that “The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it is comprehensible.” Wigner wrote about the “unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics” in the physical sciences. There is an unstated assumption on which the scientific method is founded. But it’s not a necessary truth. It’s not a logical condition of existence. It is a scientific hypothesis that can be tested. Actually, it has been tested…and the results…? [written version, mostly the same, with links and illustrations] This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subsc...2024-01-0226 min
Truth Jihad RadioEconomist KV Ramani and Scientist Josh Mitteldorf on AI and Evil ElitesTruth Jihad AudioVisual returns with a vengeance! Just hours after Maroc Telecom turned on my internet, two of Earth’s most interesting non-mainstream thinkers met visually for the first time (after having collaborated textually for many years). I’m flattered that they chose my first Morocco-based broadcast to do it. Part 1: Generative AI chatbots can very quickly flog you with the mainstream party line on just about anything. But is that intelligence? Or a quantum leap in stupidity? In this interview, retired UN economist KV Ramani discusses his essay “Generative AI and Junk Science,” published at Josh Mitteldo...2023-08-071h 09
Unauthorized Science PodcastCO2 is the Least of our Worries This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit mitteldorf.substack.com2023-08-0413 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastSchoch Waves from our Solar System and BeyondThere have been, and will be again, many destructions of mankind arising out of many causes; the greatest have been brought about by the agencies of fire and water, and other lesser ones by innumerable other causes. . . . Just when you and other nations are beginning to be provided with letters and the other requisites of civilized life, after the usual interval, the stream from heaven, like a pestilence, comes pouring down, and leaves only those of you who are destitute of letters and education; and so you have to begin all over again like children, and know nothing of...2023-05-2924 min
noliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2023-0517Josh Mitteldorf on Time Paradoxes and Election Integrity2023-05-1756 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on Time Paradoxes and Election IntegrityThis is a free preview of a paid episode. To hear more, visit kevinbarrett.substack.comScientist and renaissance man Josh Mitteldorf discusses science (“Can the future reach into the past to call itself into existence?“) and politics (“Windfall for an Election Software Company — and a muzzle for anyone who questions Election Integrity“). “My thesis is that while all of today’s science is rooted in the paradigm that influence flows only fr… This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit kevinbarre2023-05-1305 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastWindfall for an Election Software CompanyIt was never easy to question the election machines or the electronic systems that tally our votes, but now it has become much harder. Dominion Voting Machines has sued Fox News Network on the grounds that they were not sufficiently skeptical of Rudolph Giuliani and Sidney Powell when the latter claimed they had evidence that the 2020 election had been stolen from their client, Donald Trump. A judge handed down a partial summary judgment for the plaintiff, and Fox has settled for more than ¾ of a billion dollars — an amount far greater than the total dollar value of Dominion’s sales...2023-04-2815 minnoliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2023-0419Josh Mitteldorf on the Origin of Life2023-04-1956 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on the Origin of LifeAnti-aging scientist Josh Mittledorf discusses his article “The Origin of Life…Unsolved or Unsolvable?” He writes:“I believe that a bird’s eye view of innovative research over the last 70 years supports the assertion that life could not have arisen from inorganic matter by any known chemical process.” He backs up that statement by summarizing findings on auto-catalyzing hypercycles, chirality, amino acids’ information storage, self-replicating RNA, nanobes, jeewanu, and more. Bottom line: James Tour is right, life couldn’t have arisen randomly.Well, then, how did it arise?“I propose that Heisenberg’s ‘uncertainty’ is actual...2023-04-1556 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastA diplomatic critique of American hegemonyI love my country enough to hold it to a high standard. My loyalty is to the American people, and not to the crimes committed in the name of the people. Let us as Americans support the countries of the world that are organizing for an end to American militarism and economic domination. Let us welcome a new and less domineering role for the USA in an emerging peaceful, multipolar world. This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit mitteldorf.substack.com2023-03-2441 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastA Cell in the Body of God This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit mitteldorf.substack.com2023-03-1034 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastA Cell in the Body of God, part 1 This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit mitteldorf.substack.com2023-03-0715 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastA Grand Unified Theory of Corruption and Treachery This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit mitteldorf.substack.com2022-12-2416 minnoliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2022-1218Josh Mitteldorf on US Senate COVID Panel; Brian Ruhe Dumps Hitler and STOPS Going Death Con 32022-12-1855 minnoliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2022-1214Matthew Ehret on Anti-China Psy-Ops; Josh Mitteldorf on US Senate COVID Panel2022-12-1456 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on US Senate COVID PanelFirst 30 minute: Josh Mittledorf continues discussing his articles on Part 1 and Part 2 of Wednesday’s US Senate Hearings on COVID issues chaired by Sen. Ron Johnson (R-WI). (I knocked on doors to help re-elect Ron Johnson so he could do this—and hopefully investigate the mega-scandal of COVID origins.)Final 30 minutes: This just in: My favorite (ex?)Buddhist Nazi, Brian Ruhe, has STOPPED “going Death Con 3.” In his brand-new post Brian writes:“I promise I will stop bashing the Jews and stop promoting Adolf Hitler. I’m done. I’m moving in a gentler direction now. I’m taking...2022-12-1155 min
Truth Jihad RadioMatthew Ehret on Anti-China Psy-Ops; Josh Mitteldorf on US Senate COVID PanelFirst 40 minutes: Matthew Ehret of Canadian Patriot discusses his new 75-page report “Breaking Free of Anti-China Psyops: How the Cold War is Being Revived and What You Can Do About It.” Also on the agenda: Matt’s new Cradlearticle “Xi Jinping’s Visit to Saudi Arabia and the overthrow of Atlanticism: The historic China-Arab Summit currently underway in Riyadh symbolizes the emerging Eurasianism in the Persian Gulf.”Final 15 minutes Scientist Josh Mittledorf discusses his new articles on Part 1 and Part 2 of Wednesday’s US Senate Hearings on COVID issues chaired by Sen. Ron Johnson (R-WI). (I knocked on doors to hel...2022-12-1156 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on Suppression of “Free Energy”In his new article Energy from the Vacuum scientist Josh Mitteldorf observes: “There are persistent stories of people who invent perpetual motion machines only to disappear or to die mysteriously or become insane.” After looking at the physics of various proposed free energy technologies, he notes: “Many people have speculated that such technologies are not only possible, but that they have been developed and deployed by an elite group of powerful individuals or for advanced military applications, but kept secret from the public…Free energy could threaten the world’s reserve currency. In addition, the same ZPE technologies that could run...2022-11-1956 min
Truth Jihad Radio“The Evolution of Beauty” with Eric Walberg and Josh MitteldorfPodcaster’s note: You could have listened to this show last weekend if you’d gotten a paid subscription to my Substack.Should Darwin’s thesis be rewritten as “the survival of the most gorgeous”? That’s the takeaway from Richard Prum’s The evolution of beauty: How Darwin’s forgotten theory of mate choice shapes the animal world — and us (2017) according to Eric Walberg’s new review. Joining Eric to discuss Prum’s book is anti-aging scientist and evolutionary theorist Josh Mitteldorf. This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this wi...2022-10-1357 minnoliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2022-1012Should Darwin’s thesis be rewritten as “the survival of the most gorgeous”? That’s the takeaway from Richard Prum’s The evolution of beauty: How Darwin’s forgotten theory of mate choice shapes the animal world — and us (2017) according to Eric Walberg‘s new review. Joining Eric to discuss Prum’s book is anti-aging scientist and evolutionary theorist Josh Mitteldorf.2022-10-1257 min
Truth Jihad Radio“The Evolution of Beauty” with Eric Walberg and Josh MitteldorfPodcaster’s note: You could have listened to this show last weekend if you’d gotten a paid subscription to my Substack.Should Darwin’s thesis be rewritten as “the survival of the most gorgeous”? That’s the takeaway from Richard Prum’s The evolution of beauty: How Darwin’s forgotten theory of mate choice shapes the animal world — and us (2017) according to Eric Walberg’s new review. Joining Eric to discuss Prum’s book is anti-aging scientist and evolutionary theorist Josh Mitteldorf. This is a public episode. If you’d like to discuss this with other subscribe...2022-10-0857 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastSomeone is hopefulI was attracted to this book only because I saw the extent to which the author is censored and demonized in all poles of the mainstream Western press. The book is not available on Amazon.In case you have been hibernating for the last 30 months, I’ll define the Great Reset: It’s a plan emanating from the World Economic Forum which promotes itself with lofty goals, such as elimination of poverty and sustainable development. But to achieve these goals, the Resetters propose an unprecedented centralization of power. The world will be ruled by an elite few, and...2022-09-1037 min
Unauthorized Science PodcastThe Hypnotized Masses This is a public episode. If you would like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit mitteldorf.substack.com2022-06-2827 min
Embrace: This Next-Level Full Audiobook For Curious Minds.Impressions of Theophrastus Such by George EliotPlease visithttps://thebookvoice.com/podcasts/1/audiobook/593612to listen full audiobooks.
Title: Impressions of Theophrastus Such
Author: George Eliot
Narrator: Josh Mitteldorf
Format: Unabridged Audiobook
Length: 6 hours 43 minutes
Release date: May 28, 2022
Genres: Europe
Publisher's Summary:
Impressions of Theophrastus Such is a work of fiction by George Eliot, first published in 1879. It was Eliot's last published writing and her most experimental, taking the form of a series of literary essays by an imaginary minor scholar whose eccentric character is revealed through his work.2022-05-286h 43Stream Popular Full Audiobooks in Romance, HistoricalImpressions of Theophrastus Such by George EliotPlease visithttps://thebookvoice.com/podcasts/1/audiobook/593612to listen full audiobooks.
Title: Impressions of Theophrastus Such
Author: George Eliot
Narrator: Josh Mitteldorf
Format: Unabridged Audiobook
Length: 6 hours 43 minutes
Release date: May 28, 2022
Genres: Historical
Publisher's Summary:
Impressions of Theophrastus Such is a work of fiction by George Eliot, first published in 1879. It was Eliot's last published writing and her most experimental, taking the form of a series of literary essays by an imaginary minor scholar whose eccentric character is revealed through his work.2022-05-286h 43
Stream Popular Full Audiobooks in Romance, HistoricalImpressions of Theophrastus Such by George EliotPlease visit https://thebookvoice.com/podcasts/1/audiobook/593612 to listen full audiobooks. Title: Impressions of Theophrastus Such Author: George Eliot Narrator: Josh Mitteldorf Format: Unabridged Audiobook Length: 6 hours 43 minutes Release date: May 28, 2022 Genres: Historical Publisher's Summary: Impressions of Theophrastus Such is a work of fiction by George Eliot, first published in 1879. It was Eliot's last published writing and her most experimental, taking the form of a series of literary essays by an imaginary minor scholar whose eccentric character is revealed through his work.2022-05-2803 minStream Popular Full Audiobooks in History, EuropeImpressions of Theophrastus Such by George EliotPlease visithttps://thebookvoice.com/podcasts/1/audiobook/593612to listen full audiobooks.
Title: Impressions of Theophrastus Such
Author: George Eliot
Narrator: Josh Mitteldorf
Format: Unabridged Audiobook
Length: 6 hours 43 minutes
Release date: May 28, 2022
Genres: Europe
Publisher's Summary:
Impressions of Theophrastus Such is a work of fiction by George Eliot, first published in 1879. It was Eliot's last published writing and her most experimental, taking the form of a series of literary essays by an imaginary minor scholar whose eccentric character is revealed through his work.2022-05-286h 43
Stream Popular Full Audiobooks in History, EuropeImpressions of Theophrastus Such by George EliotPlease visit https://thebookvoice.com/podcasts/1/audiobook/593612 to listen full audiobooks. Title: Impressions of Theophrastus Such Author: George Eliot Narrator: Josh Mitteldorf Format: Unabridged Audiobook Length: 6 hours 43 minutes Release date: May 28, 2022 Genres: Europe Publisher's Summary: Impressions of Theophrastus Such is a work of fiction by George Eliot, first published in 1879. It was Eliot's last published writing and her most experimental, taking the form of a series of literary essays by an imaginary minor scholar whose eccentric character is revealed through his work.2022-05-2803 min
Your Portable Library of Free AudiobookImpressions of Theophrastus Such Audiobook by George EliotListen to this audiobook in full for free onhttps://hotaudiobook.com/freeID: 593612
Title: Impressions of Theophrastus Such
Author: George Eliot
Narrator: Josh Mitteldorf
Format: Unabridged
Length: 6:43:28
Language: English
Release date: 05-28-22
Publisher: Bookwire
Genres: History, Europe, Historical Romance
Summary:
Impressions of Theophrastus Such is a work of fiction by George Eliot, first published in 1879. It was Eliot's last published writing and her most experimental, taking the form of a series of literary essays by an imaginary minor scholar whose eccentric character is revealed through his work.
Contact: info@hotaudiobook.com2022-05-286h 43noliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2022-0504Josh Mitteldorf Proves We’re Not Living in a Simulation2022-05-0355 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf Proves We’re Not Living in a SimulationAnti-aging scientist Josh Mitteldorf returns to Truth Jihad Radio to offer “Proof We Are Not Living in a Simulation (see Nick Bostrum’s famous essay) and discuss the amazing fact that “The Universe Seems Fine-Tuned for Life.” If we answer those cosmic questions quickly we’ll move on to questions about quantum physics and mind-brain relationships.Josh Mitteldorf writes:I The Universe seems fine-tuned for lifeThe fundamental equations of physics have constants in them that physicists take as a given. They just happen to be what they are. For example in E=mc2, the E i...2022-05-0355 minnoliesradioKevin Barrett's Truth Jihad Radio 2022-0113Josh Mitteldorf on COVID/Vaccine Controversies, Miracles & Quantum Theory, Atlantis, 6th Extinction, and More2022-01-1359 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf on COVID/Vaccine Controversies, Miracles & Quantum Theory, Atlantis, 6th Extinction, and MoreScientist Josh Mitteldorf, author (with Dorion Sagan) of the book Cracking the Aging Code , just published "5 Theories on the Origin of Omicron, the Variant That Might End the Pandemic." Today, Josh returns to Truth Jihad Radio to tackle a long list of controversial issues—not just the usual COVID debates! As he wrote me ahead of the interview:"Kevin - I'm delighted we're going to have this conversation. You're one of the few people who have read in areas diverse enough to make it possible. I don't expect we're going to figure anything out, but perhaps w...2022-01-1259 min
Truth Jihad RadioJosh Mitteldorf survives head-on bike-truck crash—and plugs RFK Jr.'s bookScientist Josh Mitteldorf, author (with Dorion Sagan) of Cracking the Aging Code, believes human lifespans can potentially be greatly extended, and suspects we may be on the verge of a breakthrough in anti-aging science. But he almost didn’t get to live long enough to find out. Last July 21 Josh was on the bike end of a bicycle-truck head-on collision; his survival with no brain or spine damage seems almost miraculous.After recounting his harrowing experience, Josh goes on to briefly describe a prospective anti-aging breakthrough, and offer an extended appreciation of JFK Jr.’s bestseller The Real...2021-12-0858 min
Boundless LifeQ&A 426: Does Being Overweight Help You Live Longer? The Dark Side Of Fasting, The Latest On Caffeine & Exercise Performance, Ben's Pre-Workout Formula & Much More! News Flashes – Follow Ben on Twitter for more… The latest on high-intensity interval training (HIIT) being "bad for you" and how to do HIIT vs. (high-intensity resistance training (HIRT)...01:00 Topo Chico appears to have cleaned up its act. Hooray for all my tequila and lime that was piling up. Read about it...16:30 Folks who excessively fast but can't seem to drop fat should be aware of this—don't long-term calorie restrict without re-feeds...23:20 Weight and Aging: A Paradox Part 1 by Josh Mitteldorf...29:45 And here's Part 2 The latest takeaway's from JAMA on caffeine and exercise performance—I WILL unpack this in a fu...2021-04-081h 20
Ben Greenfield Fitness: Diet, Fat Loss and PerformanceQ&A 426: Does Being Overweight Help You Live Longer? The Dark Side Of Fasting, The Latest On Caffeine & Exercise Performance, Ben's Pre-Workout Formula & Much More! News Flashes - Follow Ben on Twitter for more... The latest on high-intensity interval training (HIIT) being "bad for you" and how to do HIIT vs. (high-intensity resistance training (HIRT)...01:00 Topo Chico appears to have cleaned up its act. Hooray for all my tequila and lime that was piling up. Read about it...16:30 Folks who excessively fast but can't seem to drop fat should be aware of this—don't long-term calorie restrict without re-feeds...23:20 Weight and Aging: A Paradox Part 1 by Josh Mitteldorf...29:45 And here's Part 2 The latest takeaway's from JAMA on caffeine and exercise performance—I WILL unpack this in a fut...2021-04-081h 25
Dr. Kara Fitzgerald | New Frontiers in Functional Medicine, Longevity, EpigeneticsEpisode 75: Aging as an Evolutionary Program with Josh MitteldorfAs FxMed docs, we’re committed to working with the body’s own capacity for health. Dr. Josh Mitteldorf offers a contrarian strategy, one which he says is grounded in a new breed of evolutionary medicine.
He tells us that diseases of old age are qualitatively different from the diseases we get when we’re younger, different because in old age, our bodies are part of the problem, not part of the solution.
Aging, says Josh, is the body deliberately destroying itself (for the sake of the population), via inflammation and apoptosis and autoimmune diseases. In this interview, Josh and I find...2019-12-0148 min
科学真相基因自私吗？撰文/闵嘉德（Josh Mitteldorf） 翻译/汪婕舒如今，很多人心目中进化论的核心是“自私的基因”。这个理论把每个基因都看作一个具有能动性的独立主体，似乎其他基因的环境都无关紧要。自私的基因难以解释有性繁殖、物种间的共生和生态系统的稳定性，但在科学家们于实验室中开展的简单进化实验里，它却如鱼得水。为什么这种偏颇的理论会成为主流观点呢？答案可以追溯到一位生活在大约100年前的英国数学家。他才华横溢、富有活力、著作甚丰，但对世界的观点却有些扭曲，并且对生物学知之甚少。甚至算不上“理论”的进化论进化论的提出者查尔斯·达尔文（Charles Darwin）是一位大自然的敏锐观察者，但他的进化理论是描述性的。达尔文的书里没有任何公式，他喜欢通过例子来解释进化是怎样运作的。在描述自然选择的过程时，他的语言依然是华美多彩、不甚精确，有时甚至自相矛盾。如果达尔文将《物种起源》中的章节提交给今天的生物学期刊，我敢说，编辑一定会把稿件退还给他，并告知无法评议他的理论，除非他能足够精准地描述他构想的机制。尽管达尔文提到了遗传，但他完全不知道双亲的性状是如何融合到一起并传递给下一代的。在他撰写《物种起源》时，研究遗传的科学正在起步。在摩拉维亚的山间，一位名叫格雷戈尔·孟德尔（Gregor Mendel）的天主教神父正在种植豌豆。他小心地控制着豌豆的授粉，并记录下它们的特征与双亲的关系。通过抽象推理和初级统计学，孟德尔在没有显微镜来观察遗传物质的情况下，推断存在着一种能从父母传递给子代的隐藏“因子”，就是今天所说的基因。根据孟德尔的遗传规则，这些因子有时能影响豌豆的外观（显性），有时不能（隐性)。但是，不管这些性状是否“表达”，每个亲代都会随机选择一半因子传递给子代。这样，孟德尔发现了遗传的统计学规律。当时，达尔文闻名遐迩，而孟德尔却无人知晓。孟德尔读过达尔文的著作，甚至把自己的发现寄给了达尔文。但达尔文却从未打开过那个信封，更别提阅读他的研究了。直到生命的最后一刻，达尔文都在与进化论中的问题艰难作战。倘若他开启了孟德尔的信件，那些问题早已迎刃而解。19世纪生物学的两位巨人“群体遗传学”的发明到了1900年，孟德尔的遗传实验被重新发现，并在英国公之于众。一位名为罗纳德·费舍尔（Ronald Fisher）的英国数学家将孟德尔和达尔文的理论结合在一起，建立了一个完整的、定量的进化理论。在20世纪，进化论终于可以称得上是一门科学了。为了建立进化的定量科学，费舍尔不得不发明了一整套数学统计工具，将当时惯常使用的概率论往前推进了一大步。费舍尔倡导了相关性的概念和统计实验的设计，这些都是现代科学的支柱。今天，人们依然纪念他，不仅因为他创立了群体遗传学，还因为他对支撑着所有科学实验分析的统计学方法做出的杰出贡献。当存在许多相同的东西时，统计学规律就能运行良好。但天下没有两片相同的树叶。在生物群体中，没有两个个体是完全一样的。费舍尔要怎么继续呢？他大概会说，个体大体上是相同的，而它们之间的细微差别才是进化的驱动力。于是，费舍尔将基因而非个体生物作为进化的“原子”，将达尔文所说的“适应”解读为基因在种群中扩散的速度。在达尔文眼中，“适者生存”指的是那些比其他同类的体格更健壮、繁殖力更强的个体，或者也可以是能够从其他群体那里抢夺领地的蚁群、狼群或人类部落。但费舍尔却认为，“适者生存”应该指那些最具适应性的基因，一个能在下一代中复制比其他竞争者更多拷贝的等位基因。费舍尔的目的是让自己的理论更具有数学性，然而他的局限却在于，在那个年代，他只能用纸笔来进行计算，而无法用计算机模拟程序来研究错综复杂的进化论。限于只能手算的公式，费舍尔给出了一个简单优雅的理论。每个基因都会向适应性做一些贡献。基本上来说，个体的适应性就是它所有基因的适应性之和。进化成功与否，可以用一个基因的某个版本在群体中的副本总数来度量。某基因覆盖率的增长率被看作衡量基因适应性的定量值。费舍尔为他的群体遗传学所选择的模型还产生了另一个影响。在数学领域，人人都将费舍尔看作高山仰止的天才；但他在政治上的立场，即使在20世纪20年代的英国看来，也显得有些狂热。费舍尔是一位社会达尔文主义者。他认为经济就是拥有不同技能的人互相竞争以求生存。这些技能，尤其是智商，被用来与适应性相提并论。他认为，资本主义的市场自然会向更聪明的人提供机会，同时降低那些不那么聪明的人的地位。最让费舍尔担忧的事情是，那些贫穷、教育程度低、从事低级工作、在伦敦大街上推着车卖苹果的人，却比他认为更加聪明的上流阶层生育了更多孩子。费舍尔担心这种“反向的进化”会让英国人在今后的世代变得越来越愚笨和失败。他支持一种叫做“优生学”的政策，来严格控制哪些人有资格生孩子，以及每个家庭能生多少个孩子。他甚至写道，那些智商出众的人拥有生育的义务。而费舍尔自己，是9个孩子的父亲。优生学并不是费舍尔研究的旁枝末节，而是他的动力来源。1930年，他在《自然选择的基因理论》(The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection）一书中描述了他理论的数学和科学基础。这本书的第一部分是进化科学家的标准参考，证明了他的前提假设，并引申出进化科学的核心数学机制，后来得到了人们的广泛实践。第二部分则长篇累牍地讲阐述了优生学的观点。对被第一部分吸引来的读者而言，真的有点尴尬。统计学、而非仅是生物统计学的开创者费舍尔，他的故事可以在著名的科普读物《女士品茶》中读到。两个世界的碰撞20世纪三四十年代，全世界硝烟四起，动荡不安。希特勒进行的惨绝人寰的种族灭绝彻底败坏了优生学的名声。科学界陷入了激烈的争论，不同阵营的科学家几乎毫无交流。在那段时间，两组几乎没有任何共同点的科学家都在研究进化论。一组沿着达尔文的传统继续向前，他们擅长观察周遭世界，描述他们的所见所闻，自由散漫地推测现今的情况是如何演化出来的。另一组科学家则是秉持费舍尔传统，抽象地研究进化论的统计学，为有趣的数学理论创造了许多应用的机会。第一组是博物学家，他们几乎没有什么理论。第二组则是理论家，对观察真实世界中的植物和动物没有兴趣。理论家们选择在实验室而非自然界中验证他们的想法。他们对果蝇和酵母进行了育种实验，每次实验只针对一个性状，并对种群进行人为隔离和维持。实际上，这些实验正是以再现费舍尔的理论假设设计的，实验结果都支持群体遗传学的数学理论也就不足为奇了。理论家们沉迷于自己的成功，并没有意识到，自私基因的理论和实验只是一个巨大的循环论证。他们从未怀疑过，自己在实验室进行的人为隔离能否真正模拟真实世界中的自然选择过程。毋庸置疑，进化论的两个观点必然要碰撞。一场没有硝烟的战争正在20世纪六七十年代的科学期刊上进行。交锋的焦点主要围绕着两本书。韦罗·科普讷·瓦恩-爱德华兹（Vero Copner Wynne-Edwards）是达尔文阵营中一名年长的英国博物学家。他环球旅行，并向人们描述自己的见闻。他主要聚焦在生态系统和群体行为，大自然是如何维持平衡的？1962年，瓦恩-爱德华兹写下了《涉及社会行为的动物分布》(Animal Dispersion in Relation to Social Behavior)，堪称其毕生研究的完美谢幕。这本书的主题是，动物彼此合作，避免过于拥挤，以此来保护它们赖以生存的植物和动物，并防止过度开发。通过小小的团队合作，蚂蚁们形成了一座桥，来让它们的伙伴通过。乔治·威廉姆斯（George Williams）是一名年轻的美国生物学家，接受过自然生物学和费舍尔数学进化论的双重训练。1966年，他发表了一本影响巨大的书《适应与自然选择》(Adaption and Natural Selection）。在书中，他指责了研究进化论的博物学家，特别强调了韦恩-爱德华兹的错误。他谴责他们模棱两可的理论思考，呼吁人们更严谨精准地研究自然选择在假说环境中的运作，并做出可检验的定量预测。之后发生了什么呢？这两组科学家理应坐到一起，共商大计。博物学家可以说：“这是我们观察到的现象，是亟待解释的大规模合作和自我牺牲现象。”而理论家们应该说：“这是我们关于进化的模型，这是模型做出的预测。让我们一起来检验它们吧！”这才应该是理想的状况：两种思路的科学家通力协作，每一方都能做出有价值的贡献。然而，现实是残酷的，交流更像是竞争，而不是合作。理论家擅长言辞，论证富有逻辑，咄咄逼人，认为博物学家一定是错误的。而博物学家根本无法理解理论家，也没有能力想出有力的反驳。他们没能在实验室和自然世界之间划出一条清晰的界限，而是追随理论家，聚焦在细枝蔓节、无关紧要的例子上，因为这些是清晰明了、无歧义的。他们从未敦促理论家解释大自然的宏大图景。而在大自然中，既有自私的例子，也有合作的情形。在这场学术论战中，年轻的理查德·道金斯（Richard Dawkins）写出了著名的《自私的基因》(The Selfish Gene)。道金斯是一位富有天赋的作家，不仅吸引了大众，也引起了科学家的注意。他为费舍尔的群体遗传学起了一个容易记2019-06-1216 min
科学真相衰老是如何进化出来的？撰文/闵嘉德（Josh Mitteldorf） 翻译/汪婕舒在上一篇文章中，我向大家介绍了一个悖论。最近20年，生命科学家发现了一些能加速衰老的基因。这些基因非常古老，在许多动物、植物甚至酵母这样的单细胞生物中都有发现。同所有的基因一样，它们也一定是由进化过程选择和塑造出来的。但进化是一个适者生存的过程，衰老却使生存走向终结。从这个意义上看，衰老站在了“适应”的反面。那么，为什么进化会选择自杀的基因呢？什么样的进化过程会青睐于更短的寿命呢？为此，科学家提出了一种解释：这些“衰老基因”实际上是为了增强繁殖力。生命的目的就是复制和扩散。从达尔文的理论出发，我们很容易理解，增强繁殖力的基因是能够被进化出来的。或许，衰老与繁殖的关系过于紧密，以至于进化无法将它们分离开。又或许，我们称之为“自杀基因”的，其实应该是“生育基因”，而衰老只是它的副作用，是为了达到最高繁殖率而必须付出的代价。在20世纪下半叶，这一理论已经变得非常流行。到了21世纪，科学家们发展出了通过增减基因来观察它们的功能、并持续追踪它们表达状态的技术。于是，在实验室中检验自杀基因是否真的是乔装打扮的生育性基因成为可能。果然，他们的发现改写了自杀基因的故事。原来，衰老并不是由某些个别的基因引起的，而是由生命不同阶段中复杂的基因表达模式所引起的。正如那些在胎儿时期帮助你塑造了身体形态——四肢、胃、肝脏和大脑、在童年时期为你分泌生长激素、在青少年时期为你产生性激素的基因表达模式，另外有一组基因是专为成年人准备的。在生命的晚期，这组基因将会开启，目标是将我们杀死。它们的合力会引起自体免疫疾病和慢性炎症，最终导致心脏病和癌症。同时，预先计划好的细胞凋亡会开始摧毁健康的肌肉和神经细胞。身体抵御外来侵略的防御机制竟然倒戈相向，开始攻击我们自己的身体！作为表观遗传程序的衰老表观遗传学是一门研究基因表达的科学。也就是说在不同的时间和地点，如何根据身体的需要，开启和关闭基因。近几年，人们正在逐渐达成共识：同生长和发育一样，衰老也是一个表观遗传程序。3年前，加州大学洛杉矶分校的一名计算生物学家编写了一个计算机程序，可以通过分析哪些基因被开启来判断一个人的年龄，被称为“表观遗传的衰老生物钟”。那么，究竟是不是提升繁殖力的基因模式导致了衰老呢？并不是，除了少许例外之外。一些生育性基因的确与缩短寿命有关，但大体上来说，生育性基因通常激活于生命的早期，而衰老基因则在很久之后才会开启。在这点上，女性比男性更为明显。在所有生育力终结之后，女性会迎来一大波自杀基因的启动。快速发育所需的基因在生命很早期就被启动，但它们并不常导致癌症。癌症更多发生在六七十岁的老年人身上。于是，我们的故事从自杀基因转向了自杀表观遗传程序。调控生长和繁殖的“年轻”基因指令与那些导致炎症、密谋细胞死亡的“老年”基因是完全不同的。因此，尽管我们揭开了一层面纱，但真相依然扑朔迷离。达尔文告诉我们，生命是一场生存与繁殖的竞赛。很显然，我们的身体知道如何开启那些胜利的基因，因为这正是我们年轻时要做的事。那么，为什么当我们老去时，身体会转而开启那些失败的基因呢？个体与集体的矛盾要回答这个问题，进化生物学家被迫超越个体的视角，转而检视那些有利于群体的事。“同类群”(deme）是指一个交配池，也就是同一地域内通过交配而共享某些基因的同一种动物。永远保持健壮的状态，对个体来说或许是最好的，但对一个同类群来说却不一定是好事。假如这样，年轻个体的机会从何而来呢？当地的环境只能支持一定数量的种群，因此必须牺牲一些个体，才能保证其他个体的存活。让年幼的个体与那些体格健壮、发育完全的成年个体竞争资源和地位是不公平的。一些幼仔或许拥有成长成一个更为强大的竞争者的潜力，但如果它们必须要在年幼力小时和成年个体竞争，那很可能面临着早早被淘汰的命运。这是德国进化生物学家奥古斯特·魏斯曼（August Weismann）在一百多年前就提出的想法。我们大家都认同，老一代的死亡对年轻一代来说是一个机会，可以帮助他们成长。但从此时开始，这个问题变得令人困惑。短期来看，依靠那些久经考验、已经证明自己适应环境且体魄强健的成年个体或许是更好的选择。但从长期来看，改变是必要的，能向进化中注入新的可能性。然而，我们所说的长期，可能是指许许多多世代，进化并不会虑及如此长久的问题。年幼的个体与那些体格健壮、发育完全的成年个体竞争资源和地位是不公平的。对改变的需求会产生衰老吗？进化生物学家常提及这样一个思想实验，并将其作为质疑衰老理论和种群变化必要性的原因：假设在一个寿命很短的动物种群内，出生了一个携带着某单基因突变的个体。这个变异可以使它活得更久，同时不会影响年轻时的繁殖力。那么，它就在自然选择的彩票抽奖中握有了更多胜券，并且很可能会生育不止一个后代。如果这些后代继承了亲本的这个基因变异，那么它们就会生育更多长寿的孙代。一个小小的优势，就能这样以指数规模扩散开来。100代甚至不到100代之后，它就能遍布整个种群。当所有短寿的种群成员都死光之后，这个同类群更新换代的速度就变慢了。年幼个体长大的机会也变少了，导致进化的过程放慢了脚步。最终，这个同类群会处在一个非常不利的地位，因为它无法跟上环境变化的节奏。但一切已经来不及了，短寿的基因早已在该种群中灭绝。衰老对种群是有利的，因为整个种群将进化得更快。但衰老对个体又是有害的，因为假如个体死得过早，它将基因传递到下一代的机会也随之减少。类似的思想实验说服了进化生物学家，让他们相信，危害个体的不利因素才是更重要的，因为个体层面上的进化更迅速，也更有效。更快的进化率对种群整体来说至关重要，但它只在千万年的时间尺度上有效。而它的效果不会适时出现的话，也就来不及创造出一个青睐短寿的进化偏好。更为精细的计算机模型检验20世纪70年代，计算机开始在科学界得到广泛应用。进化生物学家逐渐从思想实验转向了计算机模型，将自己的推理过程用数学方程表达出来，并建立计算机程序来反复测试这些方程，更详细和更客观地检验他们对大自然的直觉是否合理。科学家用计算机模型来探索了“衰老能否因对改变的需求而进化出来”这一问题。结果，计算机模拟的结果极大程度上符合科学家们从思想实验中得到的直觉和预期。结果表明，长寿个体所获得的额外繁殖机会比短寿个体所拥有的额外进化机会更为重要。早期的一个计算机进化模型是由美国生态学家迈克尔·吉尔平（Michael Gilpin）所开发，并发表于1975年的一本小书《捕食群落中的群体选择》(Group Selection in Predator-Prey Communities）上。1975年的计算机编程和现在不可同日而语。那时候吉尔平所使用的计算机拥有的内存只相当于你口袋中手机内存的百万分之一。为了编写一个程序，他需要使用特别的打字机在卡片上打孔，来代表计算机命令。吉尔平是起跑线上的第一人，因为他在学校里学的是理论物理学和控制论，所以他很熟悉那些喜怒无常的机器有什么特殊要求。吉尔平的计算机模型旨在研究两个性状之间的竞争。其中一个性状对群体有利，而另一个对个体有利。他证明了如果一个动物群体的繁殖速度快于它赖以生存的植物或动物的繁殖速度，该群体就会陷入困境。实际上，这是一个非常重要的原则。但吉尔平传递的信息太过激进，让习惯于传统思维方式的科学家们难以接受。即使到了今天，可能大多数进化生物学家都尚未接受他的观点。个体要适应环境，就要繁殖得越快越好。但是，当一个群体的个体都快速繁殖时，数量就会增长得过快，这对动物群体来说可能是灾难性的。这是因为，与植物不同，动物依赖于其他物种（动物或植物）提供食物。假如这种动物过于贪婪，它们的增长速度就会超过食物的增长速度。这样，它们的下一代就会被饿死。因此，个体的超级适应性对群体来说不仅仅是不利这么简单，甚至算得上是灭绝性的伤害。吉尔平的结果传达了一个重要的信息——动物种群需要确保自己的数量不会比它们赖以生存的食物增长得更快。但是，动物很容易就能比植物增长得更快，因为它们能吃下非常多的食物，特别是在拥有一个满满当当、只待被搜刮的食品储藏库时。而植物的生长受限于它们捕获阳光的速度。因此，动物必须限制自身的增长率。进化论能够在三个层面上起作用：个体、群体和生态系统。在个体层面，自然选择会奖赏那些吃得尽可能多的个体，好让它们能尽可能快地产生后代。在群体层面，如果个体繁殖得越快，群体的数量也会增长得越快。但是，在生态系统层面，这种捕食者与生产者之间增长率的不一致将导致灾难性的后果。整个生态系统会在很短的时间内烟消云散。吉尔平的群体选择机制比魏斯曼的更快。对整个生态系统的计算机模拟显示，那些尽快扩张数量的物种不可能构建起一个稳定的生态系统。指数级增长会导致该种群如风中之烛般起伏波动，直到整个生态系统崩溃（这个过程会很快），种群灭绝。只有当消费者种群自我调节、保持数量稳定时，生态系统才能保持动态平衡。在真实世界中，这一点通常由领地权来实现：许多鸟类、哺乳动物甚2019-05-2215 min
科学真相形形色色的衰老（下）撰文/闵嘉德（Josh Mitteldorf） 翻译/汪婕舒逆转衰老1905年，荷兰生物学家弗里德里克·斯多皮布林克（Friederich Stoppenbrink）研究了真涡虫（Planaria）的生命周期。这是一种扁虫，通常出现在淡水池塘里。他注意到，当这种动物食物不足时，会有计划地吃掉自己。从最可消耗的器官（性器官）开始，慢慢吃到消化系统（在饥荒年代反正用处也不大），接着是肌肉。在这个过程中，真涡虫变得越来越小，直到只剩下最宝贵的部分——大脑和神经细胞。斯多皮布林克称，当他再次喂食时，它们又重新生长，迅速长回了之前吃掉的部分。此外，它们的外表和行为看起来都像年轻的真涡虫一样。当那些没有经历过饥荒的同龄真涡虫因衰老而逐渐死亡时，这些经历了饥饿和重生的真涡虫依然活蹦乱跳。这个实验可以重复一遍又一遍，只要斯多皮布林克一直让它们经历挨饿和重生的过程，它们就会一直活下去，丝毫没有衰老的迹象。能够返老还童的灯塔水母 图/Shane Anderson/2010年，灯塔水母（Turritopsis nutricula）一夜成名，只因它在科学新闻中被捧上了“永生”的宝座。灯塔水母的生命周期分为水螅体与水母体，幼体以水螅体的形式固着生活，成年后以水母体的形式游泳生活。但一旦遇到环境恶化，成年的灯塔水母能倒退为水螅形态，从头再活一次。这是通过将分化细胞变回干细胞来完成的，与正常的发育方向（干细胞到分化细胞）截然相反。从本质上说，就是在生命的单行线上逆向行驶。腐尸甲虫（Trogoderma glabrum）也有一个类似的绝招，但只有挨饿的时候才用。它们的一生都在树林中的尸体上度过，成长中会连续经历6个不同的幼虫阶段—先像蛆、接着像马陆、然后像水黾，最后才变成六足的甲虫。1972年，美国威斯康辛大学的两名昆虫学家在试管中将处于第6阶段的幼虫（即将变成成虫之前）分离了出来。他们发现，如果食物短缺，它们能够退回幼虫的第5阶段；如果几天都吃不到食物，它们会逐渐缩小和倒退，直到变成刚孵出来的蛆虫的样子；如果恢复喂食，它们又能再次向前生长，经历正常的发育阶段，变成成虫，并拥有正常的寿命。他们一次又一次地重复这个周期，让它们先长到幼虫的第6阶段，然后让它们挨饿，退回第一阶段。这样，这些甲虫的寿命从8周延长到了两年多。持续再生与性水螅是一种放射对称的无脊椎动物，在身体上方有一个口，周围包围着触手。如果触手被切掉，还能够长回来——就像希腊神话中的勒拿九头蛇一样，因而共享着相同的英文名（Hydra）。它们用触手抓住水蚤等浮游生物，并以此为食。也有些水螅是绿色的，依赖着在它们透明肌肤下的共生藻类。曾经有人对水螅开展了4年的研究，从野外捕捉了各种年龄的样本，发现它们似乎不会自然死亡，随着年龄增长被捕食者吃掉或生病的几率也不会增加。在人体内，有些细胞（比如血细胞、皮肤细胞和胃黏膜细胞）会不断死亡和重生。而水螅似乎全身都是这样，每隔几天便能从干细胞基底中自我更新。一些细胞会掉落和死亡；但还有一些，假如体积足够大，就能像萌芽一样从原来那只水螅的身体上伸出来，长成一只克隆的水螅。这是一种古老的繁殖方式，完全不需要性就可以完成。对水螅来说，有性繁殖似乎并不是必须的，而只是偶尔的放纵。近期一篇文章声称，水螅其实是会衰老的，其表现是它克隆的速度会变慢。研究者认为，克隆体会继承“父母”的年龄。他的假说是，只有有性繁殖才能“重置”衰老的时钟。如果这是真的，那么，水螅衰老的方式就回到了单细胞的原生生物，比如草履虫。草履虫的衰老我们在此前的专栏中已经介绍过。对它们而言，克隆的次数记录在端粒中。当端粒短到一定程度时，细胞便衰老而无法分裂。只有有性繁殖可以重置端粒上的“时钟”。这一古老的衰老方式迫使个体必须与群体分享自己的基因。高等生物（包括你和我）也有端粒，并且，端粒在我们的一生中通常会越来越短，直到我们死去（癌细胞则逃离了端粒的束缚）。只有在繁殖时，两个不同亲代的配子细胞形成新的个体时，端粒才会重置。衰老的开关2019-05-1208 min
科学真相形形色色的衰老（上）撰文/闵嘉德（Josh Mitteldorf） 翻译/汪婕舒人类的衰老是缓慢的进程，每过一年，我们都向死亡的终点迈出一小步。于是，当我们环视四周，便认为其他动植物也同我们一样。但实际上，自然界有着形形色色的衰老，其过程从短短几小时（比如微生物）到一些动物的几百年和树木的数千年不等。一些动物在生命的尽头会突然衰老，还有一些根本不会衰老，少数甚至可以逆转衰老。而植物的衰老模式和寿命长短更加多样。许多衰老理论都是基于“人类的衰老经验在大自然中一定是普遍存在或至少是典型的”这一想法。然而，一个好的理论应该考虑到衰老模式的多样性，也应考虑到衰老是从远古进化而来这一事实。一些对现代动物（包括人类）的衰老起到调控作用的基因，其根源都能追溯到10亿年前的微生物。没有衰老的生命？有一种变豆菜（Sanicula）是生长在欧洲牧场里的灌木。在过去65年中，人们一直在不间断地研究着瑞典的一片变豆菜。变豆菜的预期寿命与人类差不多，但它却从不衰老。对人类来说，随着年龄的增长而逐渐变老，死亡的几率便会增长。而对变豆菜而言，每一年，75株变豆菜中平均就有一株会死去，可这却与年龄无关，一株75岁的变豆菜的死亡率并不比一株10岁的更高。我们人类在出生时的预期寿命大约是70年（各国差异很大），到了60岁预期寿命可能剩下18年，80岁的老人可能预期还能活7年。而对变豆菜来说，一株幼苗的预期寿命是75年，到了60岁，它的预期寿命依然还剩75年。实际上，有少数变豆菜已经200岁了，但它们的预期寿命依然还剩75年。按照这个概率，100万株变豆菜中约有一株能活到1000年，如果我们的解释正确的话，这株1000岁的变豆菜与死亡的距离并不比一株幼苗更近。龙虾是否会衰老至今还是一个谜。由于被过度捕捞，龙虾很少能长到1千克以上。但人们依然时常捕捞到超过4千克的龙虾，历史纪录中最大的龙虾更是足有20千克。大龙虾通常会被放回大海，这并非只是因为它们不适合摆上餐桌。龙虾长得越大，繁殖力就越强，它们留下后代的几率就越大。一只大龙虾繁殖出的后代能占据一大片海域。我们并没有最老龙虾的记录，因为它们没有年轮或类似结构供我们检验年龄。有人认为20千克的龙虾可能超过100岁，但并不确定。蛤类也能无限地长大，其繁殖力同样会变得越来越强。幸运的是，蛤类有生长环，可以让我们数出它的年龄。已知最老的蛤是一只北极圆蛤（Arctica islandica），足有507岁，很可能死于打捞后撬开壳数生长纹的过程。它被称为“明”，因为在它出生时中国正处于明朝。蛤类有一些天敌，比如说海星会抓住它们的壳，用蛮力将它们撕开。但是，一旦一只蛤长得比海星的腕还长，它就有可能无限地生长下去。重达350千克的巨蛤依然保持着它那些迷你亲戚们的生活方式，每天吸入超过它们自身重量3万倍的海水，滤食浮游生物和海藻，这些生物进入巨蛤肚子里还能继续繁殖。正如大龙虾一样，巨蛤也能为整个种群提供后代。美国加利福尼亚州白山上的刺果松平均寿命超过1000岁，当然前提是它度过脆弱的幼年期。 图/Dcrjsr/世界上的长寿之王非树莫属。一株19世纪死于风暴的龙血树（Dracaena draco）可能已经活了6000年；美国加利福尼亚州白山上的刺果松（Pinus longaeva）中最古老的大约已有5000岁，平均寿命超过千年。这是由于树在生长上投入巨大精力，总是试着让自己的叶片逃离其他树木的阴影，从而抢到最好的阳光。森林中最古老的树总是能傲视群雄，获得第一缕阳光的能量。那么，树木到底会不会衰老呢？有些会，有些不会。当然了，如果一棵树成长为树林中最高的一棵，也会有烦恼——它将是第一个被闪电击中的目标。并且，当树林扎根的土壤被侵蚀，它也是最头重脚轻、最容易被风吹倒的那一个。此外，有些树木似乎也拥有一个“特征年龄”，一旦过了这个年纪，死亡率会逐年增加。有证据表明，年老的树木更容易受到真菌和疾病的侵害。不过，在大多数时候，老树通常是因为尺寸过大而受到机械伤害，最终垮塌致死的。也就是说，正是持续生长的能力终致其消逝。突然死亡2019-04-0610 min
Groks Science Radio Show and PodcastAging Code -- Groks Science Show 2017-07-26Why do our bodies age? Is it due to natural wear and tear or are our bodies programmed to age on a schedule? On this episode, Dr. Josh Mitteldorf discussed the science of aging.2017-07-2619 min
The Ironman ExecutiveCracking the Aging Code with Josh MitteldorfWelcome back to the Ironman Executive Podcast where today we talk with Josh Mitteldorf, he is both a researcher and science writer. He recently released a book called Cracking the Aging Code which not only transformed my perspectives on aging but will bring awareness and knowledge into your own understanding of aging. Learn the importance of epigenetics in aging as we discuss current research, research that may happen over the short term and long term in the science world in regards to how reversing aging may be possible. Caloric Restriction There is good...2016-11-1042 min
Aging in ArizonaAIA - Dr Josh Mittledorf Author of Cracking the Aging Code on Aging in AZ with Presley Reader & Mark Young - ComForCare Home Care - 8-21-16In Cracking the Aging Code, theoretical biologist Josh Mitteldorf and award-winning writer and ecological philosopher Dorion Sagan reveal that evolution and aging are even more complex and breathtaking than we originally thought. Using meticulous multidisciplinary science, as well as reviewing the history of our understanding about evolution, this book makes the case that aging is not something that “just happens,” nor is it the result of wear and tear or a genetic inevitability. Rather, aging has a fascinating evolutionary purpose: to stabilize populations and ecosystems, which are ever-threatened by cyclic swings that can lead to extinction.2016-10-0842 min
Cracking the Aging CodeWant to extend your life and enjoy your years with health and wellbeing? If so, you will want to find out all about Cracking the Aging Code!
Join theoretical biologist and author, Dr. Josh Mitteldorf, Ph.D. as he shares the latest scientific research on how our bodies age and what we can do to slow the process. If you challenge the tick-tock of Father Time and give yourself the gift of vitality and radiant health as you age, you won’t want to miss this one!2016-07-0615 min
Stream Audiobook in Science & Technology, Magazine & RadioCracking the Aging Code by Josh Mitteldorf | Free AudiobookListen to full audiobooks for free on :https://hotaudiobook.com/freeTitle: Cracking the Aging Code
Author: Josh Mitteldorf, Dorion Sagan
Narrator: Stephen McLaughlin
Format: Unabridged
Length: 12 hrs and 14 mins
Language: English
Release date: 06-14-16
Publisher: Macmillan Audio
Genres: Science & Technology, Biology
Summary:
A revolutionary examination of why we age, what it means for our health, and how we just might be able to fight it.
In Cracking the Aging Code, theoretical biologist Josh Mitteldorf and award-winning writer and ecological philosopher Dorion Sagan reveal that evolution and aging are even more complex and breathtaking than we originally thought. Using meticulous...2016-06-1512h 14
Press Play On This Breakthrough Full Audiobook — Perfect On A Rainy Day.Cracking the Aging Code by Josh Mitteldorf, Dorion SaganPlease visithttps://thebookvoice.com/podcasts/2/audible/169357to listen full audiobooks.
Title: Cracking the Aging Code
Author: Josh Mitteldorf, Dorion Sagan
Narrator: Stephen McLaughlin
Format: mp3
Length: 12 hrs and 14 mins
Release date: 06-14-16
Ratings: 4.5 out of 5 stars, 107 ratings
Genres: Aging Parents
Publisher's Summary:2016-06-1412h 14