Shows
Behavioural Science ExplainedFunctional fixednessFunctional fixedness is a cognitive bias originating in Gestalt psychology, defined as the inability to repurpose an object for any use other than its original or traditional function, thereby negatively impacting problem solving when a novel use is required. Misleading functional knowledge is considered to be at the core of this bias.Seminal research, beginning with Duncker's Candle Box problem, established functional fixedness as a key psychological phenomenon. Modern studies have explored its mechanisms using experimental groups differentiated by learning modality: Reading (R), Video (V), or Manual (M) instruction. Further investigations examined its universality in a technologically sparse culture (the...
2025-10-1424 minBehavioural Science ExplainedBaader-Meinhof phenomenonThe Frequency Illusion, also known as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon, is a cognitive bias wherein a person notices a specific concept, word, or item far more frequently shortly after recently becoming aware of it. This illusion is not due to an objective increase in the phenomenon, but rather a result of heightened awareness. It operates through two primary psychological processes: selective attention, which focuses the brain on relevant stimuli, and confirmation bias, which reinforces the perception by leading individuals to notice evidence that supports their hypothesis while disregarding contradictory information.Linguist Arnold Zwicky coined the term "frequency illusion" in 2005, highlighting that...
2025-10-0734 minBehavioural Science ExplainedEmpathy GapThe empathy gap is a psychological bias where individuals struggle to accurately predict or understand the emotions and behaviors of others, or their own future selves, when in different emotional or visceral states. It is often defined as the hot-cold empathy gap, which contrasts states influenced by intense emotions like anger, pain, or hunger ("hot") with calm, rational states ("cold").Research highlights several manifestations:Hot-cold gaps impact medical decisions, with patients in a "hot" state of distress (e.g., after a cancer diagnosis) making treatment choices they might reconsider when calmer. Smokers in a "cold" state also underpredict future cravings...
2025-09-1941 minBehavioural Science ExplainedEffort JustificationEffort justification is a psychological phenomenon where individuals enhance the perceived value of an achievement or outcome after investing significant effort, trouble, or pain to obtain it. This concept is deeply rooted in cognitive dissonance theory, pioneered by Leon Festinger (1957), which posits that individuals are motivated to reduce psychological discomfort arising from inconsistencies between their beliefs and actions. In this context, justifying strenuous effort for an outcome that might objectively be underwhelming serves to restore cognitive consistency.Classic research demonstrating effort justification includes Aronson and Mills's (1959) study, where participants who underwent a severe initiation to join an unexpectedly dull discussion...
2025-09-1555 minBehavioural Science ExplainedDenomination EffectThe denomination effect is a cognitive bias where individuals are less likely to spend money in large bills compared to an equivalent amount in smaller denominations or coins. Larger bills are often overvalued, acting as a self-control mechanism to deter spending, as people are reluctant to "break" them and lose track. Smaller units are undervalued and spent readily.Priya Raghubir and Joydeep Srivastava's (2009) foundational research demonstrated less spending from a single $5 bill than from five $1 notes. Large denominations are perceived as less fungible, serving as a pre-commitment strategy to save. If this self-control fails, a "what-the-hell" effect can lead to...
2025-09-1222 minBehavioural Science ExplainedDefensive Attribution HypothesisThe defensive attribution hypothesis describes an observer's tendency to attribute causes for a mishap in a way that minimises their fear of becoming a victim or being responsible in a similar situation. It stems from discomfort with the idea that negative events can happen randomly, prompting a search for a controllable cause. This bias helps individuals avoid the threat of future harm or blame.Early research by Walster (1966) suggested that increased accident severity leads observers to attribute more responsibility to the perpetrator to maintain a belief in a controllable world. Shaver (1970) refined this, introducing the critical role of perceived similarity...
2025-09-0844 minBehavioural Science ExplainedDeclinismDeclinism is the belief that a society or institution is tending towards decline, characterised by viewing the past more favourably and the present or future more negatively due to cognitive biases like rosy retrospection. Historically, this concept is traced to Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, which posited a loss of civic virtue, and Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West, which argued for inevitable cyclical civilisational collapse.The sources cover various aspects:American Declinism: It is often linked to economic stress and self-doubt stemming from foreign policy failures and domestic issues. Robert Bruner...
2025-09-051h 02Behavioural Science ExplainedCurse of KnowledgeThe Curse of Knowledge (CoK) is a cognitive bias that occurs when individuals, having acquired knowledge, find it difficult to imagine what it's like not to know it, erroneously assuming others share their level of understanding. This creates a significant barrier to effective communication and knowledge sharing, especially for experts and educators.The sources extensively cover this phenomenon:"Made to Stick" (Heath & Heath) popularised the term, illustrating it with the tapper-listener experiment where tappers vastly overestimated listeners' ability to identify tapped songs. They propose the SUCCESs framework (Simple, Unexpected, Concrete, Credible, Emotional, Stories) as a counter-strategy.The Decision Lab and...
2025-09-011h 08Behavioural Science ExplainedCue-Dependent ForgettingCue-dependent forgetting, also known as retrieval failure, is the inability to recall information because the appropriate retrieval cues are absent, even though the memory trace itself is still available in storage. Tulving and Pearlstone (1966) introduced the distinction between availability (information stored) and accessibility (information made retrievable).Research consistently supports this view. Experiments by Tulving and colleagues demonstrated that "forgotten" information can be recovered when specific cues are provided, such as category names for words in a list. Hultsch (1975) found that adult age differences in retrieval were attributable to both cue-dependent (accessibility of categories) and trace-dependent (availability of words per category...
2025-08-2959 minBehavioural Science ExplainedCross-race EffectThe Cross-Race Effect (CRE) is a well-established phenomenon where individuals demonstrate superior accuracy in recognising faces from their racial group compared to those from other races. This has significant implications for eyewitness identification accuracy in legal contexts. Research from various sources indicates that the CRE stems from complex mechanisms:• Perceptual expertise models suggest that greater experience with own-race faces leads to more efficient processing strategies.• Social-cognitive models propose that outgroup faces are processed categorically rather than as individuals, affecting recognition. Hybrid models integrate both perceptual and social-cognitive perspectives. Key learnings • The CRE affects metamemory, meaning individuals are less accurate at predic...
2025-08-2519 minBehavioural Science ExplainedContrast EffectThe contrast effect is a cognitive bias where the perception or judgment of a stimulus is influenced by the presence of other, contrasting stimuli, often leading to an exaggeration of perceived differences. This pervasive phenomenon impacts various domains, influencing how experiences are interpreted and decisions are made.Key learnings from the sources include:• Sensory and Physiological: In newborns, a negative contrast effect meant sucking for water decreased after prior exposure to sweeter sucrose, indicating prior reinforcement's influence. Subjective drug effects were perceived as less potent when placebo/no-drug conditions followed strong drugs. Visually, a shape-contrast effect distorts perceived shapes to be...
2025-08-2223 minBehavioural Science ExplainedContagion EffectContagion is the spontaneous spread of emotions, behaviours, or conditions within a group or network, often occurring unconsciously. Important learnings include:• Emotional contagion involves automatic mimicry of others' expressions, postures, and vocalizations, influencing one's own emotional state. This can be positive (e.g., joy) or negative (e.g., anxiety), impacting workplaces, social media, and close relationships.Behavioural contagion shows that observing others' decisions, such as risk-taking, can alter an individual's behaviour, including triggering overconfidence.Unethical behaviour is particularly contagious. Individuals may display an 'underconfidence bias,' relying more on predecessors' actions to justify their own unethical choices, facilitating its spread. Th...
2025-08-2019 minBehavioural Science ExplainedConsistency BiasCommitment and self-consistency bias refers to the idea that people assume less change in their attitudes and beliefs than actually occurs. Also known as consistency bias, it means believing one’s past and present attitudes are similar, despite attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours often changing more than we realise. This bias is identified as one of Daniel L. Schacter’s 'seven sins of memory'. This human tendency stems from a nearly obsessive desire to be and appear consistent with what we have already done. Once a choice or stand is made, personal and interpersonal pressures arise to behave consistently with that comm...
2025-08-1519 minBehavioural Science ExplainedConservatism (Belief Revision)Conservatism in belief revision is defined as the human tendency to cling to prior beliefs or initial impressions, often revising views less than normatively predicted, even when presented with new, contradictory evidence. This bias explains why changing deeply held views or values is so difficult for people. We cover the ongoing debate between foundations and coherence theories of belief revision. The foundations theory suggests beliefs require explicit justification, meaning losing a core belief can trigger a chain reaction of abandonment. In contrast, the coherence theory posits that beliefs are justified unless there's a specific reason to doubt them, advocating for...
2025-08-1158 minBehavioural Science ExplainedCongruence BiasCongruence bias is the tendency for people to over-rely on testing their initial hypothesis (the most congruent one) while neglecting to test alternative hypotheses. This means individuals rarely attempt experiments that could disprove their initial belief, instead opting to repeat initial results. It is a special case of confirmation bias, where people seek information that confirms existing beliefs and filter out contradictory evidence. This mental shortcut can lead to poor decision-making and a lack of critical thinking. The bias is evident when subjects repeatedly test their own, often naive, hypotheses rather than attempting to falsify them. For example, given two...
2025-08-0443 minBehavioural Science ExplainedConfabulationConfabulation is generally defined as the unintentional production of false, distorted, or displaced memories or statements about oneself or the world, which the individual sincerely believes to be true, often filling gaps in memory. These statements can range from plausible distortions to bizarre or fantastic narratives. Confabulation is frequently observed in patients with organic amnesia, and is strongly associated with damage to the frontal lobes, particularly the orbitofrontal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Other neurological causes include traumatic brain injury (TBI), anterior communicating artery (ACoA) aneurysms, Korsakoff's syndrome, and Alzheimer's disease. A hallmark of confabulation is the patient's lack of awareness...
2025-08-0146 minBehavioural Science ExplainedClustering IllusionThe clustering illusion is a cognitive bias that leads individuals to mistakenly perceive non-random patterns or trends in truly random data or events. This common phenomenon is rooted in the innate human tendency to seek order and predictability in the world, causing the brain to find connections even where none exist. It arises because people tend to underestimate the natural variability that is likely to appear in small samples of random data. In trading, for example, investors might misinterpret a series of short-term gains or losses as a significant, lasting trend, leading to poor investment choices. Psychologists Daniel Kahneman and...
2025-07-2835 minBehavioural Science ExplainedChoice Supportive BiasChoice-supportive bias is a cognitive bias that compels individuals to justify their decisions, often by retroactively attributing positive qualities to chosen options and downplaying rejected ones. This fascinating aspect of human psychology helps us avoid cognitive dissonance—the mental discomfort arising from conflicting beliefs—and maintain a positive self-image. The bias shapes perceptions through memory distortion, causing people to recall their chosen option more favourably than it was and rejected options less favourably. It also leads to selective information gathering that supports previous choices. The provided sources detail the bias's widespread impact across various domains, including:•Consumer behaviour, where it drives...
2025-07-2554 minBehavioural Science ExplainedCheerleader EffectThe cheerleader effect describes how an individual is perceived as more attractive when seen within a group than in isolation. Popularised by How I Met Your Mother, this robust effect shows an average attractiveness increase of 1.5%–2.0% and has been replicated across various cultures, including collectivist societies like China.Proposed mechanisms include:•Automatic ensemble averaging, where the brain averages group attractiveness, making individuals seem more appealing•A change in evaluation mode, where judgment shifts from internal standards to comparison with flanking faces, causing the effect even without direct attractiveness contrast, especially for less attractive individuals•The effect is moderated by group composit...
2025-07-2159 minBehavioural Science ExplainedBizareness EffectThe bizarreness effect is a psychological phenomenon defined as the increased likelihood of people remembering information that is strange or unusual compared to information that is mundane or expected. This effect has a significant impact on memory recall. Memory training experts have long advocated associating information with bizarre imagery to improve recall. The effect typically occurs when bizarre and common information are intermixed. While complex stimuli are generally less conducive to the effect, it can emerge with sufficient processing time. Key theoretical explanations include the distinctiveness account, which suggests that the uniqueness of bizarre items leads to extra processing, and...
2025-07-1841 minBehavioural Science ExplainedBias Blind SpotThe bias blind spot (BBS) is a phenomenon where individuals are less likely to detect bias in themselves than in others. People typically believe they are, on average, less biased than their peers. This "metabias" or "cognitive blind spot" is rooted in naïve realism – the belief that one's own perceptions are objective. Consequently, people tend to attribute differing views in others to bias, while failing to recognise similar biases in themselves. The BBS is a distinct construct, largely independent of intelligence, decision-making ability, or personality traitsThe Entire Behavioural Science Reading List on Amazon (https://amzn.to/4juLQTM)
2025-07-1438 minBehavioural Science ExplainedBase Rate FallacyThe base rate fallacy is a cognitive bias where individuals overvalue specific information and ignore the general prevalence (base rate) of an event, leading to misjudgments about likelihoods. It suggests people overlook how common or rare something is, favouring new, seemingly relevant details. This phenomenon has been extensively studied, notably by Kahneman and Tversky, who attributed it to heuristics like representativeness. Critics, such as Gigerenzer, argued that experimenters failed to present uncertainty in understandable forms, specifically natural frequencies. Koehler's work re-examined the fallacy, noting that base rates are almost always used, and their influence depends on task structure and representation...
2025-07-1135 minBehavioural Science ExplainedAutomation BiasAutomation bias is the human tendency to over-rely on automated system recommendations, even when incorrect, leading to errors of commission or omission. Explored across systematic reviews and domain-specific studies in public sector, national security, healthcare, and aviation, this bias shows mixed prevalence, yet even low levels carry significant risks. Psychological roots like cognitive laziness and trusting technology contribute as well. Modulators include task complexity and user experience Limited AI knowledge often increases overreliance in a nonlinear fashion. Mitigating strategies emphasise promoting skepticism and error awarenessThe Entire Behavioural Science Reading List on Amazon (https://amzn.to/4juLQTM)
2025-07-071h 06Behavioural Science ExplainedBandwagon EffectThe bandwagon effect is defined as an individual's propensity to adopt the viewpoint of the majority, even if their own differs, reflecting a desire to "join the crowd". It also describes adoption processes in networks driven by pressure from prior adopters, where a majority's action signals something is good, influencing both individual and organizational decisions. We extensively review studies on this effect from 1970 to 2021. Key areas include consumer demand and digital networks, voting behaviour, diffusion of innovation, and diffusion of management practices, encompassing various industries like luxury, healthcare, and apparelThe Entire Behavioural Science Reading List on Amazon (https://amzn.to/4...
2025-07-0439 minBehavioural Science ExplainedBystander EffectThe Bystander effect, a phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present. One text details a computer model simulating this effect in cells exposed to radiation, while others examine the bystander effect in human contexts, such as workplace ethics and responses to violence. Research discussed includes studies showing diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, and the role of personality traits in influencing bystander behaviour. Finally, a study demonstrates the bystander effect in rats, highlighting similarities between human and animal responses.
2025-06-3014 minBehavioural Science ExplainedEgo Depletion Theory (Baumeister)We explore the concept of ego depletion, a theory positing that self-control is a limited resource that diminishes with use, impacting subsequent self-regulatory efforts. The articles examine the theory's supporting evidence and critiques, including the role of motivation and the impact of depletion on various behaviours such as eating, spending, and social interactions. Debate surrounds the robustness of the ego depletion effect, with some research suggesting its influence is smaller than initially believed, potentially due to methodological issues and publication bias. However, the texts also explore potential biological underpinnings, like glucose levels, and the moderating role of motivation in self-control...
2025-06-2714 minBehavioural Science ExplainedTheory of Cognitive Dissonance Reduction StrategiesWe examine cognitive dissonance theory, exploring its origins, mechanisms, and impact on mass communication, particularly in advertising and political messaging. It also discusses strategies for managing and mitigating dissonance in media contexts and suggests avenues for future research. The second source investigates how customer disconfirmation bias—the discrepancy between expectations and post-purchase experiences—affects online rating systems. It analyses the asymptotic behaviour of ratings across different system designs (complete, aggregate, average ratings), considering factors like granularity and customer heterogeneity, to determine how accurately these systems reflect true product quality.
2025-06-2314 minBehavioural Science ExplainedDisconfirmation BiasConfirmation bias, a cognitive bias where individuals favour information confirming pre-existing beliefs, and its counterpart, disconfirmation bias, where contradictory information is more critically examined. The articles examine the impact of these biases on various aspects of life, including decision-making, political viewpoints, and even rating systems. One text specifically analyses how disconfirmation bias affects online rating systems, focusing on how customer expectations and post-purchase experiences influence ratings and the resulting accuracy of quality assessments. Another source offers strategies for mitigating confirmation bias in the workplace. A final article details the history, signs, types, and impacts of confirmation bias, providing methods to...
2025-06-2013 minBehavioural Science ExplainedFlow State Concept (Csikszentmihalyi)Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's concept of "flow," a state of deep engagement and immersion in an activity. They detail flow's characteristics, benefits (including enhanced emotional regulation, happiness, and creativity), and neurological underpinnings. Practical strategies for achieving flow are also discussed, along with its applications in various fields like sports, education, and the workplace. Finally, the sources examine research on flow, highlighting its relationship with happiness and positive psychology, and addressing potential challenges to achieving flow.
2025-06-1611 minBehavioural Science ExplainedGrit Theory (Duckworth)Here we covered her YouTube interview with Angela Duckworth and her book Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. Both sources discuss Duckworth's research on grit, a combination of passion and perseverance, as a key factor in achieving success. The interview explores her personal background and how her upbringing influenced her work, while the book excerpts showcase her research findings and examples of gritty individuals across various fields. The book expands on the concept of grit, exploring its components (passion, perseverance, hope, and purpose), and how these traits can be developed. Ultimately, both sources advocate for the importance of hard work...
2025-06-1315 minBehavioural Science ExplainedSocial Facilitation EffectThrough the concept of social facilitation, we examine how the presence of others impacts individual performance. One text offers a general overview of social facilitation, including its definition, causes, and examples in various contexts. Another investigates the effect of a problem-based learning environment on nursing students' motivation, comparing it to conventional teaching methods. A further text focuses on how gender composition among co-actors influences the strength of the social facilitation effect, using experiments involving visual search and arithmetic tasks with EEG and cortisol measurements. Finally, additional texts discuss how social facilitation can either improve or hinder performance depending on factors...
2025-06-0916 minBehavioural Science ExplainedAttribution Theory (Weiner)Attribution theory We examine its historical development and applications across various fields. The theory posits that individuals seek to understand the causes of events, particularly successes and failures, influencing subsequent emotions and behaviours. Several sources analyse how these attributions are made, highlighting biases and contextual factors. Applications are explored in education, consumer psychology, and even the analysis of magic tricks, demonstrating the theory's breadth. A final source investigates the adoption of refurbished apparel, applying attribution theory to understand consumer intentions.
2025-06-0617 minBehavioural Science ExplainedResource Dependence TheoryWe explore Resource Dependence Theory (RDT), examining its application in various organisational contexts. One text offers a managerial overview of RDT, highlighting merging, alliances, and co-optation strategies with examples from the public and non-profit sectors. Another conducts a meta-analysis of RDT, investigating the effects of different inter-organisational arrangements on autonomy, legitimacy, and performance, also considering the impact of antitrust legislation. A third text refines RDT, distinguishing between power imbalance and mutual dependence in explaining constraint absorption, using mergers and acquisitions as a case study. Finally, other sources explore the financial sustainability and volunteer engagement of successful non-profit organisations and the...
2025-06-0212 minBehavioural Science ExplainedExpectancy-Value TheoryWe explore expectancy-value theory within various educational contexts. One study investigates the theory's application to academic procrastination amongst undergraduates, examining relationships between motivation, procrastination, and achievement. Another replicates and extends a study on pre-service teachers' technology acceptance, integrating expectancy-value theory with the Technology Acceptance Model. A further systematic review summarises existing research on expectancy-value theory in music education, detailing methodologies and findings. Finally, two additional studies examine expectancy-value theory's application to smoking cessation and predicting science majors, respectively, highlighting the theory's utility in understanding long-term behaviour change and academic choices.
2025-05-3012 min